(Test Bank) Methods Toward a Science of Behavior and Experience

Ray, 10

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10th Edition

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WHAT IS SCIENCE? 1 Chapter 1 – What is Science? Chapter Outline Science as a Way of Knowing Tenacity Authority Reason Common Sense Science Pseudoscience and Superstition The Scientific Approach Early Approaches Overview Studying Behavior and Experience Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Resea rch Participants The People Who Perform Science Chapter Overview Knowledge about the world is gathered in several ways. In tenacity, a belief is accepted because it is presented over and over again. Authority i s a way of knowing in which we accept an idea because an authority figure tells us to. Knowledge can be acquired through reason and logic. Direct experience serves a s the basis of common sense, which can lead to knowledge. Each possesses shortcomings. In contrast to these three, science relies upon the scienti fic method that allows for self- correction of ideas. The examples of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis provide historical insight in the development of science. Science verifie s itself because of its empirical nature whether one is studying at the cognitive, physiolo gical, or behavioral level. In investigating the subjective experience of subjects, scien ce must rely upon making inferences from what is directly observable and objectiv e. Above all, science is a human activity conducted by people and communicated to people. Chapter Objectives 1. What roles do the scientist, research participant, and wi tness play in science? 2. Compare and contrast between the different methods of kno wing: tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science. 3. How did Galileo advance our thinking from authority to emp iricism? 4. What is pseudoscience and why does it often influence people ’s beliefs? 5. What important strides did Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis make? How have we advanced in our contemporary scientific approach? CHAPTER 1 2 6. What are the major characteristics of the scientific appr oach? 7. Why are scientific conclusions never considered fin al? 8. What is the importance of replication in science? How is replication part of the feedback component in science? 9. Explain how the scientific method's feedback component refines ideas. 10. What are Newton's Rules of Reasoning (1680) and how are they still utilized today by scientists? 11. How does the concept of empiricism relate to our study of behavior and experience? 12. Summarize Schumacher's four ways of studying psychol ogical processes. 13. How is psychology like other sciences in its reliance on objective observation to study indirectly unobservable phenomena? Teaching Points Often students do not appreciate the self-corrective mechanism of science. You may wish to stress this by showing how theories undergo modifi cation when the data warrant. Point out that some laypeople see this as a weakness of a theory and science, thinking, “if it changed, it must not have been a very good theory. ” Sometimes students are confused when studies of a psyc hological phenomenon yield conflicting results. One possible reason for this is that the level of analysis may differ between studies. You may wish to incorporate this in the di scussion of empiricism. Students sometimes jump to the conclusion that all the ways of knowing things that are addressed in the textbook (tenacity, authority, reason, and common sense) have little value compared to the scientific method. A discussion o f how authority, reason, and common sense are often good might be helpful. At the same time, the value of the scientific method as a powerful investigative tool to test i deas should be stressed. To emphasize the empirical/theoretical distinction, use concrete examples such as  Is a person who is withdrawn and keeps away from the crowd shy or a snob?  Is a rat that is displaying aggressive behavior experienc ing anger, displeasure, or sexual arousal?  Is someone who is crying sad or happy?  Is a person who is gets good grades motivated by success or motivated by a fear of failure? It is critical that students understand that inferences mus t be made of internal, subjective processes. Inferences, however, are not foolproof. To illustrate this, lead a discussion of WHAT IS SCIENCE? 3 the inferences that students make of others based on appe arance, race, or gender that are ultimately found to be incorrect. Teaching Activities Background Knowledge Probe To introduce students to the concepts and principles of this textbook and to help you gain a sense of what they bring to the course, consider asses sing their background. Use Handout 1-1 before starting the course and think of repea ting it at the end of the course to measure how much students have learned. What is Science? To introduce this chapter, consider asking students to sh are their views of what science is and what scientists do. Contrast these perceptions with thei r sense of what psychology is and what psychologists do. You can accomplish this by asking them to write or to say the first thing that comes to mind. Often students do not see psychology as a science, but simply and entirely as a mental health profession. Pseudoscience and Superstition Ask students to recall any advertisements they have enco untered that have used pseudoscience as a means to persuade potential customers that a product really works. Next, ask students to describe some common superstitions (e.g., walking under a ladder is bad luck) and to surmise how such false beliefs got started. Logging Ways of Knowing We probably have experience with each of the ways of k nowing presented in Chapter 1. Ask students to keep a log or journal of how they use eac h of the ways of knowing in their daily activities (e.g., working, studying, interact ing with others). Comparisons of Ways of Knowing Using Handout 1-2, ask students to identify the characteris tics of tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science. Next, students shou ld form groups and review their responses. Decision Making Ask students to brainstorm how they would use tenacity, author ity, reason, common sense, and science to make decisions. Possible deci sions include purchasing a particular used car or selecting a graduate school. The Use of Reasoning in Science As the textbook suggests, science involves the process of r easoning. To emphasize this point, use the question of whether animals can see colo r. Make sure the students understand the different conclusions that follow dependi ng on whether the color choices for the animal are blue/green, color/no color, or blue/g reen/no color. Discuss how this experiment could be adapted to test whether babies can see color. Suggest to students that subjective experience can be answered only through in ference from behavior. CHAPTER 1 4 Wadsworth ’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk. html The Wadsworth ’s Research Methods Workshop site has a link labeled What is Science? that includes relevant information pertaining to the scient ific method. This workshop segment gives students a chance to compare their personal definition of science to a textbook definition. A contrast also is provided between the characteristics of science to other methods for fixing beliefs. Internet Resources Statistical Assessment Service (www.stats.org) The purpose of this website is to provide comment on the a ccuracy of scientific and social research. It attempts to identify “bad data and research. ” Of particular interest are the Dubious Data Awards, which highlight the worst cases of “bad research. ” Philosophy of Science (www.philosopher.org.uk/sci.htm) You will find information on most of the philosophies and philosophers that have shaped the sciences, such as John Locke. 4000 Years of Women in Science (http://www.astr.ua.edu/40 00WS/) This site describes the contributions of women in scienc e from the past 4000 years. It includes biographies of many scientists. Randi $1,000,000 paranormal challenge (http://skepdic. com/randi.html) Here is a chance to win a $1,000,000 prize. However, it w ill not be easy and this site tells us why. The fact that no one has yet claimed the prize war ns us that we should all be skeptical of paranormal, supernatural, and pseudoscie ntific claims. Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclass ics.yorku.ca) A wealth of information from primary sources on the histo ry of psychology is found here. Relevant examples include statistics and the role of wome n in psychology. Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 1 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get students involved in research. 1. Insanity Plea: Inferring Subjective Experience in Science . As discussed in the text, scientists often use objective behavi or to study subjective experience. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a research article in a psychology journal on the subject of the insa nity plea. Address the following below: WHAT IS SCIENCE? 5 a. Cite the author(s), the year published, the name of the ar ticle, the journal, and the page numbers. b. What were the research questions? c. How did the author use observable behavior to infer insa nity? How was insanity measured? d. Do you think this was a valid way to measure insanity? If so, what convinced you that it is a valid measure? If not, what would convince yo u that it was a valid measure? e. What conclusions do the investigators reach in this art icle? How are they tentative or probabilistic? Did the investigators claim they "proved" anything? 2. Science in the Media. Science is all around us . Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to fin d a study that uses the scientific method. Identify the research question, how t he information was acquired, and what was concluded. Be prepared to report on your resea rch in class and explain what you recognized as the important features of the scientific method. 3. Who is Smarter, Girls or Boys? Ask five people these questions: 1) Who is smarter, girls or boys? 2) Why do you think so? Record each statement that is based on tenacity. a. Record the statement. b. Explain if it is widely accepted. c. Discuss in what ways this belief is perpetuated by individua ls, the media, or other means. d. How would science address this question? 4. Ted Bundy. Porn Addict and Serial Killer: Questioni ng Claims of Authority . Go to the library and find this article: Ellis-Simons, P. (l989). New hero of a new right: The rising voice of a family crusader . U.S. News & World Report, l06 (5), 27. This popular psychologist interviewed serial killer Ted Bu ndy before his execution. He attributed Bundy's motivation to kill to his addiction to p ornography. Do you agree or disagree with the conclusions of this authority? What o ther articles can you find on this topic? 5. Theories. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to ide ntify a psychological theory. Who developed the theory? Explain the theory. What doe s it predict? CHAPTER 1 6 6. Women in Science . Use the Internet to find information about women in science over the past 4000 years. (www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/summary.shtml) WHAT IS SCIENCE? 7 Handout 1-1 Background Knowledge Probe As you read each term, assess how much you know about it b y using the following scale: 1--- I have heard of this term 2--- I have heard of this term, but I can ’t really say what it means 3--- I have heard of this term and I have a general idea of what it means 4--- I have heard of this term and I could explain its mean ing to someone empiricism 1 2 3 4 scientific method 1 2 3 4 marker variable 1 2 3 4 experimental method 1 2 3 4 hypothesis 1 2 3 4 confounding variable 1 2 3 4 external validity 1 2 3 4 modus ponens 1 2 3 4 nominal measurement 1 2 3 4 z score 1 2 3 4 standard deviation 1 2 3 4 degrees of freedom 1 2 3 4 null hypothesis 1 2 3 4 F-ratio 1 2 3 4 alpha level 1 2 3 4 Type I error 1 2 3 4 counterbalancing 1 2 3 4 factorial design 1 2 3 4 main effects 1 2 3 4 matched-subjects design 1 2 3 4 Hawthorne effect 1 2 3 4 placebo factors 1 2 3 4 time series design 1 2 3 4 naturalistic case study 1 2 3 4 probability sampling 1 2 3 4 reactive questions 1 2 3 4 snowball sampling 1 2 3 4 informed consent 1 2 3 4 debriefing 1 2 3 4 deception in research 1 2 3 4 institutional review board 1 2 3 4 multiple working hypotheses 1 2 3 4 CHAPTER 1 8 Handout 1-2 Comparisons of Ways of Knowing Way of Knowing Description Advantages Disadvantages tenacity authority reason common sense science WHAT IS SCIENCE? 9 TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. A scientist and a child are alike in that both: a. experience the state of synesthesia as reality is discover ed. b. learn to understand the world by relying on authorit y. c. follow logical principles to test hypotheses. d. learn to understand the world through experience. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Introduction MSC: WWW 2. If a child learned that a stove was hot by touching it, then her knowledge was gained through: a. induction. b. deduction. c. experience. d. inference. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Introduction 3. Science is based on the notion that to discover the worl d, one must: a. develop ideas of how the world operates. b. experience it. c. reason how the world ought to be. d. discover through philosophy the functions of the world . ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Introduction MSC: WWW 4. Frank and Steve are coworkers. Frank has an idea tha t he says will increase profits for the company. Steve disagrees and says, "We can't do that. W e've always done it another way." This best illustrates ____ as a way of knowing. a. inference b. wisdom c. common sense d. tenacity ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 5. Statements that are accepted as fact just because they are frequently repeated are said to be acquired through: a. science. b. tenacity. c. deduction. d. empiricism. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing CHAPTER 1 10 6. One weakness of tenacity as a way of knowing is that: a. the syllogisms it produces may be illogical. b. it requires one to experience the world. c. sensory experiences may be misleading. d. it has no way of correcting erroneous ideas. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 7. You are watching a TV talk show. On the show, you list en to the world's leading researcher on relationships and learn something that might improve y our relationships. Your new knowledge was acquired through: a. authority. b. common sense. c. tenacity. d. reason. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 8. Two students in Mrs. Anderson's first grade class are do ing a class project. One of the students says, "You're not supposed to do it that way. Mrs. Ander son says you can't." The student is appealing to ____ as the way of knowing. a. rationalization b. common sense c. authority d. tenacity ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 9. Based on Chapter 1, questioning authority can serve to: a. expose how empiricism can be misused. b. incite disrespect of people who obviously are knowledg eable. c. cause people to question your reasoning ability. d. examine the basis of claims by the authority. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 10. Galileo challenged ____ as a way of knowing by cond ucting experimentation. a. empiricism b. authority c. parsimony d. blindsight ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Box 1.1 11. We can gain new knowledge through reason and logic, but the accuracy of our conclusions is dependent upon: a. the laws of probability. b. our own experiences. c. the accuracy of our assumptions. d. parsimony. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing MSC: WWW WHAT IS SCIENCE? 11 12. In contrast to tenacity, authority, and reason, comm on sense is an improvement because it: a. automatically checks our assumptions. b. appeals to direct experience. c. represents the accumulation of scientific knowledge. d. is based on blindsight. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 13. Juan is excited to tell Andrea that a stranger just ga ve him $1,000 with no strings attached. Andrea looks at Juan and thinks that he is lying. She says, "I've never heard of that before and I've never seen that before!" This best illustrates: a. common sense. b. tenacity. c. authority. d. a construct. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 14. You read a study in a journal. You know that the re sults of the study can be verified. This is because in science, observations can be: a. self-correcting. b. verified by anyone. c. theoretically interpreted. d. reviewed through tenacity. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 15. ____ has a self-corrective mechanism. a. Tenacity b. Authority c. Science d. Reason ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 16. To ensure that an experimental finding is not just a fluke, a scientist should: a. base conclusions on personal experience. b. use logical inference. c. operationalize the experiment. d. replicate the experiment. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 17. Many people have heard (and believe) that "you can not teach an old dog new tricks." This statement is based on ____. a. authority b. tenacity c. common sense d. science ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing MSC: WWW CHAPTER 1 12 18. Modern science began with rules of reasoning develope d by: a. Albert Einstein. b. Sir Isaac Newton. c. Charles Peirce. d. Ignaz Semmelweis. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Box 1.2 19. Consider this: The same stages of language development a re observed in children throughout the world. What would be Newton's reaction to this observa tion? a. Newton would challenge the observation since it is act ually chaotic and unpredictable. b. He would question the observation since it cannot be f alsified. c. He would not be surprised since he theorized that lan guage development was entirely genetic. d. He would see it as evidence of the natural order. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Box 1.2 20. Newton's rule for developing explanations that are true, sufficient, and simple best illustrates: a. the law of parsimony. b. empiricism. c. order in nature. d. tenacity. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Box 1.2 21. Pseudoscientific claims are typically no t: a. read by a large number of people. b. testable. c. published in peer-reviewed journals. d. the subject of advertisements. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing 22. A famous athlete appears on a television infomercial and claims that a new device to alleviate aches and pains has been extremely effective for her. Because no published, peer-reviewed studies have supported the effectiveness of the device, this may be an example of: a. superstition b. empiricism c. science d. pseudoscien ce ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Science as a Way of Knowing MSC: WWW 23. Much to his credit, the story of King Croesus illustrat es the importance of: a. calculating probability in determining truth. b. carefully defining variables. c. considering multiple causes of a phenomenon. d. testing in determining truth. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Early Approaches WHAT IS SCIENCE? 13 24. In his study of insomnia, Galen used: a. a control group. b. a double-blind procedure. c. a single-case experiment. d. randomization. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Early Approaches 25. The case of Semmelweis is important because it illustrat es: a. the importance of ruling out factors. b. a longitudinal design. c. the necessity of debriefing. d. how bias can influence the outcome of a study. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Early Approaches MSC: WWW 26. Because self-report and observed behaviors may not ma tch, researchers are advised to use: a. sophisticated statistical measures. b. multiple measures. c. quasi-experimentation. d. valid surveys and questionnaires. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Early Approaches 27. The stories of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis are impor tant because they reflect: a. how statistical analyses are conducted. b. the importance of random sampling. c. different ways of solving problems. d. empiricism at different levels of observation. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Early Approaches 28. Science is: a. experimental rather than logical. b. empirical rather than theoretical. c. not based on direct experience. d. based on experience and reason. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience 29. "I need to verify this idea through my own senses." Thi s comment best exemplifies: a. empiricism. b. reason. c. tenacity. d. the law of parsimony. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience CHAPTER 1 14 30. To rely on sensory experience to verify ideas is calle d: a. rationalism. b. empiricism. c. modus ponens. d. the law of parsimony. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience MSC: WWW 31. In studying reality, the philosopher relies on reason and logic, but the scientist relies on: a. common sense. b. authority. c. empiricism. d. marker variables. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience 32. Which of the following is not an appropriate questio n to ask of scien ce? a. What method of reading is best to teach to first grade rs? b. Why do some people commit suicide? c. What is the meaning of life? d. How does the brain process visual information? ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience 33. The two worlds of study in psychology are: a. cognitive and physiological. b. behavior and emotion. c. cognitive and experience. d. behavior and experience. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience 34. Which of the following is not one of the four possib le ways of studying psychological processes, according to Schumacher? a. studying our own personal world b. studying the personal world of others c. studying our outward behavior that others can observe d. studying our spirit ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Studying Behavior and Experience 35. It is sometimes possible to study processes that occur be low the level of conscious awareness by using a: a. marker variable. b. construct. c. theory. d. generalization. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experienc e of Research Participants MSC: WWW