(Solution Manual) Child Psychology A Canadian Perspective

Younger, Adler, Vasta, 3

Social Science

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Author(s): Younger, Adler, Vasta

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Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 1 CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND AND THEORIES CHAPTER OUTLINE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS ROOTS What is Developmental Psychology? Why Study Children? Early Theorists Pioneers of Child Psychology ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Nature versus Nurture Continuity versus Discontinuity Normative versus Idiographic Development THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE -DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS Piaget's Theory Information -Processing Models THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH Vygotsky’s Th eory Bronfenbrenner’s Theory THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING APPROACHES Defining Learning B. F. Skinner Types of Learning Research Classic: Little Albert and Little Peter Social -Learning Theory Canadian Contributions: Albert Bandura THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT:EVOLUTIONARY AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES Behaviour and Evolution Classical Ethology Applications to Human Development CONCLUSION Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 2 CHAPTER SUMMARY The scientific approach to understanding child psychology is little more than 100 years old. Scientific methods have allowed us to be meticulous in our approach so that our conclusions are based on proper evidence. The application of the scientific method to child development is an important contribution by psycholo gists. This method has elucidated many of the complex processes underlying what may seem to be simple behaviours. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS ROOTS What is Developmental Psychology? Child psychology is the study of behavioural and ability changes occurring during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Specifically, developmental psychology is the study of changes in behaviour and abilities over the course of development, which may include adulthood and old age. Using the scientific method, developmen tal psychologists conduct research in order to describe children's behaviour at each point in their development and to explain or determine the causes and processes that produce behavioural changes over time. Why Study Children? The study of children is fascinating to developmental psychologists for five reasons: childhood is a period of rapid change, early experiences have long -term effects, complex processes are more easily understood during their formation, social policies that improve the lives of children can be influenced by research findings, and children and their experiences are inherently intriguing. Early Theorists Four thinkers, Locke, Rousseau, von Herder, and Darwin, are the primary forerunners of contemporary theo retical positions on child development. Locke suggested that children are born with an openness to experience and learning (and without any innate mental structures; the idea of a tabula rasa or “blank slate”) that made them susceptible to environmental in fluences. Locke advocated using parental attention in response to good behaviours and scolding in response to unwanted behaviour. In contrast, Rousseau argued that children are born with innate knowledge and ideas that emerge in a definite pattern over dev elopment. In addition to advancing this notion of predictable stages, adherents of the nativistic view propose that development is a function of innate processes that guide the emergence of behaviours in a predictable pattern; they suggest that development is fostered by encouraging exploration and discovery and attending to the child’s state of developmental readiness. These ideas were later incorporated by Piaget into his theory of cognitive development. Von Herder anticipated the sociocultural views o f Vygotsky, arguing that individuals are born into the definitive cultures, each of which must be considered on its own terms ( cultural relativism ). He was particularly interested in language as a transmitter of cultural practices and values. The notion of natural selection advanced by Darwin has impacted almost all theories of Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 3 development, particularly the ethological view. Natural selection explains the persistence of and change in a species as a function of selective survival among its members as a resul t of naturally occurring hereditary differences in individual traits that differentially affect reproduction (survival) opportunities and success. ( Natural selection is an evolutionary process in which the characteristics of an individual that increase its chances of survival are more likely to be passed along to future generations.) While not a scientifically supported theory, Darwin’s ideas led to the notion of recapitulation among early developmentalists, the idea that the development of an individual re plicated the development of the species. Darwin also contributed the method of a baby biography in which a parent studies his or her own child. Pioneers of Child Psychology The early history of developmental psychology was strongly affected by the ideas of Hall, Baldwin, Watson, Gesell, Freud, and Erikson. Hall, considered the father of child psychology, contributed little theoretical or empirical material of long -lasting importance, was important in training the first generation of child researchers, fo unding the APA, and inviting Freud to lecture at Clark University. Baldwin, the first academic psychologist in Canada, was known for his stage theory and the interaction between nature and nurture in development, which later influenced Piaget’s work. Whil e initial thinking in developmental psychology focused on biological contributions, the zeitgeist (spirit of the times, the ideas shared by most scientists in a given time period) shifted to an environmental view as Watson began his work. He established th e basic tenets of behaviourism , in particular emphasizing the roles of conditioning and learning processes. Watson objected to the then prevalent method of introspection, believing psychologists should study observable and measurable behaviours, utilize e xperimentation resting on objective and verifiable measures, and incorporate work with other species in its research protocols. The core of Watson’s approach rested on Pavlovian ideas. Gesell brought developmental psychology back to an interest in biolo gical phenomena. Using a wide range of methodological innovations, including film and one -way viewing screens, he studied the processes of maturation , or biological process assumed to shape human development and identified patterns of physical development in children. From this work, Gesell defined statistical norms – a timetable of age ranges within which specific growth and behaviours would typically occur – that were useful to researchers and practitioners in evaluating a child’s developmental trajectory . Critics of his work focus on Gesell’s failure to incorporate environmental explanations into his model. Freud contributed a model of personality, pathology, and treatment, as well as a descriptive, five -stage theory of development. Freud’s theory descr ibes the movement of libidinal energy from one erogenous zone to another as physical development proceeds, emphasizing the complications of fixation. Freud’s notion of the Oedipus complex illustrates the intricacies of his theory, adding the ideas of repre ssion (the process through which desires or motivations are forced into the unconscious) and identification (the process through which a child adopts the characteristics of the same -sex parent in the phallic stage) to the psychological lexicon. Although strongly criticized for his lack of scientific rigor, Freud was the first major proponent of an interactionis t perspective (the theory that human development results from the combination of Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 4 inborn processes and environmental factors) and the first to identify the long -term effects of childhood experience. Utilizing Freudian theory, Erikson explained the nature and process of child development as proceeding according to an epigenetic principle (genetic ground plan). During the life span of the individual, he or she faces eight crises or turning points. How the person resolves the crises contributes to identity (the component of personality that develops across the eight stages of life and motivates progress through the stages) formation and psychological well -being. Table 1.1 contrasts the stage theories of Freud and Erikson. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Three issues confronting developmental psychologists are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and normative versus idiographic development. Nature versus Nurture Theorists and researchers continually debate the relative influences of innate, biological factors (nature) in contrast with experiential, learning, and environmental factors (nurture) ( the nature versus nurture debate ). Although most psychologists adopt an interactionist view, the questions about the degree to which, and t he processes by which, nature and nurture influence development continue to be endemic and many individuals appear to emphasize either one or the other, but not both in their explanations; this may be a function of the complexity of the interactive process . Examples of this are considerations of the origins of intelligence and aggression. Continuity versus Discontinuity Questions of continuity versus discontinuity are also recurrent, with theorists exploring the rate and nature of change (smooth and steady versus erratic and abrupt) and the connectedness or predictability of development. (The continuity versus discontinu ity debate focuses on the flow of development, is it constant, connected, and smooth or is it uneven, disconnected, and abrupt.) The continuity model is generally an additive, quantitative approach while the discontinuity model is a biologically driven, qu alitative and structure approach. Normative versus Idiographic Development Finally, researchers vary in the extent to which their work focuses on normative (commonalities or universals among children) versus idiographic (causes of individual differences ) development . The normative focus on the average child relies on biological explanations, while the idiographic focus on individuals directs attention to environmental and learning influences. There is also the question of universals of development , or as pects of development or behaviour common to children everywhere. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 5 Four general theoretical perspectives guide thinking and research in child development - the cognitive developmental approach, the sociocultural approach, the environmental/learning approach, and the evolutionary approach. The ideas, assumptions, and research methods of these three are the organizing framework for the entire text. For the cognitive developmental approach, changes in c hildren's behaviour reflect changes in the structure or organization of their knowledge. Thus, major concerns for these theorists include the content, organization, and development of children's knowledge. Piaget's Theory Piaget initiated the cognitive development approach, seeking to explore and explain the role of cognition in human adaptation to the environment. Beginning as a biological scientist, Piaget moved to the study of intelligence and from there to an examination of children’s devel oping capacities to acquire and use knowledge ( genetic epistemology , or the study of children’s knowledge and how it changes with development.) For research purposes, Piaget developed the clinical method , which involved a semistructured interview with ques tions designed to probe children’s understanding of various concepts. Piaget’s work, while initially attracting little attention in the United States, became increasingly important. According to Piaget, intelligence is not an entity but a process: the ch ild acquires knowledge by doing. The cognitive structures of infancy (and beyond) are called schemes ; they consist of a set of skilled, flexible action patterns through which the child understands the world. Schemes include two components: an object in the environment and the child's reaction to the object. Through the processes of acting on and interacting with objects, the child develops psychological structures of the objects that form and shape the child's subsequent interactions with the object. With r epeated applications of a scheme to more and more objects, it becomes more complex and differentiated. As children develop from infancy to adolescence, their schemes increasingly become internal mental structures and their intelligence is defined by the nu mber and complexity of their cognitive structures. Schemes are also flexible, changing with each application and becoming individualized over time. Development reflects a continual reorganization of cognitive structures. Piaget proposed that organization (the biologically based tendency to integrate knowledge into interrelated cognitive structures) and adaptation , (the tendency to fit with the environment in ways that promote survival) direct development. The interrelations between cognitive structures necessitates the integration (as opposed to the addition) of new knowledge. Adapting to and surviving within the environment is accomplished through the processes of assimilation (interpreting new experiences in terms of existing cognitive structures) and accommodation (changing existing cognitive structures to fit with new experiences. These ongoing processes are the means by which children operate on environmental experiences and construct knowledge about the world. ( Constructivism is the notion that childr en actively create knowledge rather than passively receiving it from the environment.) With repeated constructive experiences, the cognitive system becomes more powerful and adaptive. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 6 Biological maturation in combination with experience presents the chil d with qualitatively different cognitive demands - demands that require substantive new cognitive skills. Piaget identified four different stages or periods (general stages of development, each of which is characterized by a qualitatively distinct form of functioning across many cognitive structures) through which cognitive development proceeds. Each transition from one stage to another results in qualitative differences in the child's cognitive functioning, differences that affect all aspects of the child' s performance. The sensorimotor period – birth through 2 - is one in which knowledge is based on physical interactions with people and objects. The preoperational period – 2 to 6 – is characterized by a form of intelligence in which symbols and mental acti ons begin to replace objects and overt behaviours. The concrete operational period – from 6 to 11 – reflects the use of metal operations in making logical problem solving with concrete objects possible. Finally, the formal operations period, 12 through adu lthood, is one in which intelligence is characterized by higher level operations that make possible logical reasoning with respect to abstract and hypothetical events and not merely concrete objects. Information Processing Models In this approach, huma n cognition is perceived as analogous to computer processing. Cognition is described as a sequence of inputting sensory stimulation, transforming (through encoding, comparing, storing, and retrieving) information, and behavioural output. While some informa tion processing theorists utilize the computer analogy quite literally, others describe human cognition more generally as a system of information flow and processing. Information processing models guide research on problem solving, reading, and memory. The popularity of this approach reflects the increased interest in cognitive science. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH Cognitive developmental theories tend to describe an independently functioning child, and see change as an internally driven process. In contrast, sociocultural theorists, led by von Herder, focus on the social, cultural, and historical context in which the child is raised. Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky was, like Piaget, a theorist whose original interests lay outside the field of psychology – in his case, law. Also like Piaget, Vygotsky was interested in the development of mental abilities and functions, but unlike Piaget he saw such development as an outgrowth of the sociocultural or sociohistorical period in which the child lived. As may be apparent, Vygotsky himself was strongly influenced by the Marxist views of socialism and collectivism, particularly notions of individual sacrifice for the good of whole, cooperation, and historical influences on culture, t hat were dominant during his short career. Thus Vygotsky believed that mental development (language skills, thought, and reasoning) emerged through social interactions and was culturally specific. Vygotsky identifies culture as a critical factor shaping human development, both in defining the content of cognition (what to think) and in shaping the process of thinking (how to think). (The tools of intellectual adaptation are the techniques of thinking and problem solving Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 7 that children internalize from the ir culture.)Vygotsky sees cognitive development as a dialectical process in which adults transmit cultural knowledge to children and children use their own language as a tool for intellectual adaptation. The child internalizes , or incorporates through language, bodies of knowledge and tools of thought from the culture. Vygotskian theorists believe the child's cognitive abilities derive from cultural experience. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model Urie Bronfenner has proposed a n ecological perspective , or an approach to studying development that focuses on individuals within their environmental contexts. Ecological theorists start with the notion that children’s development does not take place in the lab or in the experimental s ettings often used in examining developmental processes; in their view, understanding the child requires understanding his or her fit within the surroundings. The child’s personal traits may be developmentally generative (eliciting helpful responses) or de velopmentally disruptive (provoking unhelpful responses.); in eliciting environmental responses, children create their own environments. But, in a transactional , or bi -directional and reciprocal relationship, the child and the environment are in a continua l process of mutual influence and transformation. In Bronfenbrenner’s model, there are four contextual levels influencing the child, beginning with the microsystem , which is the family, school, church and the associated physical characteristics (as in, s ize of house). Next, the mesosystem reflects interrelations among microsystems; then the exosystem incorporates social systems that can affect children but in which they do not participate directly, such as local government or the parent’s place of employm ent. Finally, the child is affected by the macrosystem , or culture in which he or she lives; this involves the child’s exposure to beliefs, attitudes and traditions. Additionally, Bronfenbrenner notes that the chronosystem , or changes associated with the p assage of time affects the child’s development. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING APPROACHES The organizing premise of environmental/learning theories is that environment and experience shape human behaviour. While acknowledging that biol ogy, evolutionary history, and cognition impact human developmental processes, behavioural psychologists assert that behaviours are acquired through learning processes; they are not innate. Defining Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from practice or experience. It is not temporary, it is demonstrable and observable, and it is not related to biological processes. B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner argued that all behaviours can be classified as either respondent or op erant. Respondent behaviours are based on reflexes in which a specific stimulus invariably and reliably elicits a specific response, These are usually physiological or emotional responses. Operant behaviours are voluntary responses controlled by their effe cts or consequences. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 8 Types of Learning Behavioural changes result from three types of learning - habituation, classical conditioning, and operant learning. Habituation is the simplest form of learning; it involves the decline or disappearance of a response as a result of repeated presentation o f the eliciting stimulus. Dishabituation is the recovery of a habituated responses that occurs with the a change in the eliciting stimulus. For example, an infant sleeping through repeated hand clapping will exhibit the startle response when exposed to a b uzzer. A somewhat larger role is occupied by classical (or respondent ) conditioning, a form of learning involving reflexes, in which a neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit a reflexive response (UCR – unconditioned response, one which is reliably e licited by a particular stimulus) as a result of being associated (paired) with the naturally eliciting stimulus (UCS – unconditioned stimulus ). The neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). Examples include emotional responses such as fear. Stimulus generalization occurs when stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus also acquire the ability to elicit the response. Extinction takes place when the conditioned stimulus gradual ly loses its power to elicit the response as a result of no longer being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. ------ Research Classic: Little Albert and Little Peter: Conditioning and Counterconditioning Fear The classic example of respondent or clas sical condition Watson's Little Albert experiment in which Albert was conditioned (through presentation of a white rat closely followed by a loud noise) to fear multiple iterations of white and fuzzy items, demonstrating the applicability of classical cond itioning to children. A subsequent example involved counterconditioning of Little Peter’s fear of rabbits. While ethical considerations would preclude the Little Albert experiment today, the counterconditioning of Little Peter closely resembles contemporar y fear reduction therapy. --------- Operant learning is a form of learning in which the likelihood of an operant behaviour changes as a result of its reinforcing or punishing consequences. Desirable consequences ( positive reinforcers ) result in recurren ces of the behaviour; unpleasant consequences ( punishers ) decrease the probability of behavioural repetition. Negative reinforcers increases the probability of a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus. Not surprisingly, this form of conditioning has powerful effects on children's behaviour. Social Learning Theory Social Learning theory is the view that suggests observational learning is process through which children’s behaviour changes. Albert Bandura, in particular, came to feel that a child’s cognitive abilities influence the acquisition of behaviours. In his view, observational learning , or changes in behaviours as a function of observing a model, becomes an increasingly important influence on development. He was interested in which models inf luences children’s behaviours, in what circumstances, and how behaviours change. Important concepts in this theory are vicarious reinforcement , or reinforcing consequences experienced when viewing a model that affect an Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 9 observer similarly, vicarious punish ment , or punishing consequences experienced when viewing a model that affect the viewer similarly, imitation , or behaviour of an observer that results from and is similar to the behaviour of a model, and response inhibition , or the absences of a particular response that has just been modeled; often the result of vicarious punishment. The acquisition of behaviour is influenced by attentional and retention processes, while the performance of behaviour is influenced by production and motivational processes. Bandura's is a truly interactional view: development is reciprocally determined as the person, behaviour, and environment interact ( reciprocal determinism ). In this model, the child’s abilities, physical qualities, and beliefs (and other similar factors) influence behaviour and environment; these in turn affect the child’s self -esteem and other qualities. Important among Bandura’s contributions is the willingness to incorporate a cognitive component. ------ Canadian Contributions: Albert Bandura Canadian -born, Albert Bandura, moved to the United States to do graduate work and eventually spend his career at Stanford University. He is a pioneer in the area of observational learning theory. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: EVOLUTIONARY AND BIOLOGICAL APPRO ACHES These theories are grounded in Darwinian theory; the modern version of this is ethology , the study of development from an evolutionary perspective. Behaviour and Evolution From an ethological perspective, development is an outcome of two factor s, immediate and evolutionary. The former includes the environment, recent experiences and the conditions of the organism (in the research context, often not a human). The latter are factors or behaviours originating in the evolutionary past that contribut ed to survival. Classical Ethology Classical ethologists (e.g., Tinbergen and Lorenz) have identified four characteristic qualities of innate behaviours: they are universal, require no learning or experience, are stereotyped, and are only minimally affected by environmental influences. Ethologists are particula rly interested in complex sequences of innate behaviour, referred to as modal action patterns , which are believed to be triggered by specific environmental stimuli (e.g., spider web building) and are most often seen in infancy. Modal action patterns are se t in motion by innate releasing mechanisms , or stimuli that trigger innate sequences or patterns of behaviours, and are exemplified by Tinbergen's studies of stickleback fish. Limitations inherent in ethological studies include the appropriateness of such questions for human (as opposed to lower animal) development and a concern that the learning process could supersede such inborn action patterns but ethologists increasingly contend that innate evolutionary processes are influential in human behaviours. One question of importance to ethological theory concerns the mechanisms by which biological factors may influence learning; a standard explanation is the concept of a sensitive Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 10 period , or a developmental period during which certain behaviours are more eas ily learned. Lorenz' studies of imprinting, or a biological process seen in some species in which the young acquire an emotional attachment to the mother through following, exemplify the notion of a sensitive period. Lorenz utilized naturalistic observatio ns of animals to explore imprinting and attachment. His most well known finding is that the emotional bond between the young and a mother is established during a sensitive period shortly after birth, during which the young follow the mother. Studies of im printing have been expanded into areas of human attachment processes and descriptions of the parameters of sensitive periods for such topics as language acquisition and gender -role development. Applications to Human Development Of most importance from t his perspective is its application to human development, and the most well known theorist is Bowlby; his interpretation of infant attachment has mixed the newer concepts of evolutionary theory with traditional Freudian analyses and has received considerabl e popular acceptance. Bowlby argues that the mother -child bond or attachment is pivotal, contributes to survival of the young, and is developed during a sensitive period. Sociobiology , a branch of biology that attempts to discover the evolutionary origi ns of social behaviour, is an offshoot of ethological theory propounded by E. O. Wilson. He argues that genes are selfish creatures seeking only to insure their survival from generation to generation, and do so through the processes of natural selection wh ich influences not only physical traits but social behaviours. Wilson finds the mechanism particularly relevant at a societal rather individual level as seen in such phenomena as the incest taboo. A newer application of evolutionary theory to child develop ment is evolutionary developmental psychology, or the branch of evolutionary psychology that encompasses the evolutionary origins of contemporary cognitive abilities as well as those that underlie social relations and interactions. Evolutionary psychologis ts examine the fit between the demands on humans in the past and in the present; for example, attachment which is consistent between the two periods and should therefore be found universally at present, and reading, which is a contemporary problem and shou ld therefore vary between children. They are also concerned with variations in adaptive capacities across the developmental processes. CONCLUSION Modern theories of development are distinguished from earlier approaches by their willingness to entertain multiple perspectives (e.g., interactions between nature and nurture rather than either/or), greater emphasis on complexity and multiple determinants , and utilization of scientific data. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES/LECTURE ENHANCERS A. In -Class Activities/Lecture Enhancers(1) 1. Using census data. Census data ( www.statcan.gc.ca/start -debut -eng.html ), provide a fun way to start a lecture and are useful in illustrating many aspects of and factors influencing children’s lives. Having students think of questions for which such data would provide answers, Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 11 finding the answers, and presenting the material in class is a good way to involve students, offer extra c redit, or encourage attendance. Or the students could generate questions and the class as a whole could suggest search techniques for discovering the answers. A plethora of topics concerning children can be found by browsing the “Children and youth” subjec t area (http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/subject -sujet/theme -theme.action?pid=20000&lang=eng&more=0). Data can be found on the percentage of children living with single parents, receiving child support, injured by motor vehicles, - the list is endless and tied to many aspects of child development. 2. Applying Bronfenbrenner’s theory: The Canadian Council on Social Development (http://www.ccsd.ca/factsheets/index.htm) publish online data on social and economic indicators of Canadian family life. Students coul d use these indicators in a consideration of how Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model applied to their own lives, either now, or when they were children. This could be presented as an out -of-class assignment where students must draw up a diagram outlining the structures within each level of Bronfenbrenner’s model that apply to themselves. The instructor could then have a larger in -class discussion highlighting the indivdual differences and commonalities in students’ responses. This discussion draws attention t o the multiple settings in which a child’s life is embedded in a realistic, personal, and concrete way. Students could also be asked to write a larger paper in which they analyze how various settings and social factors could influence the developmental trajectories of children exposed to them. 3. Fifty years of child -care advice. Students are often amused to discover the types of advice given by parents over the years. Outlining this material is a useful introduction to historical perspectives on child development, since the advice given reflects prevailing views of the nature of the child and the importance attached to childhood experience. Historical perspectives on child - care advice can be presented as a lecture enhancer or can be a ssigned for a research project. Libraries contain a wealth of information about child rearing. John Watson's assertion that he could, using behavioural principles, shape the development of personality in any healthy child is a dramatic way to begin such a lecture. Watson proposed a very h arsh and formalized relation between parent and child, one sure to elicit reaction from students (Watson, 1928). More humane views emerged over time, as exemplified by The first five years of life : A guide to the study of the pre-school child (1940), and Between parent and child: New solutions to old problems (Ginott, 1965 ; H. Ginott, A. Ginott & Goddard, 2003 ). A return to a more puritan ethic was signalled by The strong -willed child: Birth through adolescence (Dobson, 1978), the first of an expanding list of titles by this popular non -psychologist. In 1998, a particularly "Boomer" title - The mother dance: How children change your life (Lerner, H., 1998) appeared on bookstore and library shelves. This book incorporates socio -emotional issues of Stepmothers and Your daughter is watching you , a very nineties reference to role modeling. Topics of recent great interest to parents include bullying (e.g., Coloroso, 2008) , peer influences (e.g., Neufeld & Mate, 2005) , and attachment parenting (e.g., Hughes, 2009) . Of course, there are the multiple iterations of Dr. Spock's offering, a volume that in itself covers a substantial set of historical periods. It is useful to see how the advice offered by Dr. Spock changes over time; the new edition contains chapters on children and divorce, AIDS, substance abuse, and computer literacy, along with the traditional chapters delineating expected changes year by year and the symptoms and treatment of childhood illnesses. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 12 Coloroso, B. (2008). The bully, the bullied and the bystander . New York: Collins Living. Dobson, J. (1978). The strong -willed child : Birth through adolescence . Tyndale House. Ginott, H. G. (1965). Between parent and child : New solutions to old problems . New York: Macmillan. Ginott, H. G., Ginott, A. & Goddard, H. W. (2003). Between parent and child : The bestselling classic that revolutionized parent -child communication . New York: Three Rivers Press/Random House. Hughes, D. (2009). Principles of attachment focussed parenting . New York: Norton. Neufeld, G., & Mate, G. (2005). Hold on to your kids: Why parents need to matter more . Toronto: Knopf Canada. Spock, B., & Needlman, R. (20 11). Dr. Spock's baby and child care . (11th ed.). New York: Pocket Books. Watson, J. B. (1928 ). Psychological care of the infant and child . New York: Norton. Yale Clinic of Child Development. (1940). The first five years of life: A guide to the study of the pre-school child . New York: Harper and Brothers. 4. Children are_____; breaking the ice in a class on child development. At the beginning of the term students are often stiff and quiet in class - testing the water and waiting for the other person to speak. To encourage student participation, as early in the term as possible, instructors can ask students to complete one or m ore of the following sentences (or sentences of the instructor’s choosing) five or six times. Children are______ I want to have children because______ I don't want to have children because_____ Babies always_______ Five year olds___________ Teenagers_________ All students can do this, especially if they are assured that they will not have to hand in their responses but only select one to share. While tapping into and allowing discussion of stereotypes and attitudes toward c hildren, the exercise is most beneficial in fostering a class atmosphere of participation and discussion. Most student observations can be linked to specific areas of child development, so this provides a way to introduce the major topic areas while encour aging students to feel comfortable sharing their ideas. The earlier in the term students have a positive experience of inclusive and accepting class discussion, the more likely it is that they will contribute observations and questions in the future. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 13 5. Ongoing themes in developmental psychology. Students are often unaware of the extent to which they have incorporated assumptions about the three issues of nature -nurture, continuity - discontinuity, and normative -idiographic research into their everyday thi nking. Rather, they see these ideas as somewhat esoteric and unique to researchers, having little to do with their daily lives. As an aid to clarifying these issues and helping students realize that they probably have made assumptions about these issues, a sk students to jot down responses to the following or similar types of questions: Why does a child become a juvenile delinquent? Will a child be noticeably different at 9 from the way he or she was at 6? Why or why not? Which is the most accu rate statement, and why? Children are basically the same the world over. The most interesting thing about children is how different each one is. These questions will generate responses illustrative of the three issues, demonstrating both the nature of the issues and also the way in which those assumptions are part of the students' everyday thinking. It is helpful to make a list on the board of the terms that are associated with each issue and to remind the students that seeing one of those words migh t alert them to the presence of that issue in the text. 6. Are children better off today than in the past? The authors suggest that contemporary society is more supportive of children and more sensitive to their needs than was the case earlier in history . Begin a discussion by asking students whether they agree with that position. Students may generally agree, they may disagree, or they may suggest a middle position. The instructor may wish to challenge a strongly optimistic view by noting some disquietin g information. For example, in Canada, around 15 percent of children live in poverty according to the Conference Board of Canada (2012) . Aboriginal children in Canada experience higher rates of poverty, youth suicide, and foster care than non -aboriginal c hildren (Campaign 2000, 2011). In comparison, Scandinavian rates of child poverty hover around 5 percent , partly due to social policies that combine a strong social safety net with employment creation programs (Conference Board of Canada, 2012). This finding illustrates the fourth reason for studying child development —the creation and implementation of social policy. Research by Statistic Canada (2011) reports that in 2009, nearly 55,000 children were the victims of sexual or physical assault , and in the pr eceding 10 year period over 300 children were victims of homicides —the vast majority of which were perpetrated by parents. Instructors may find it helpful to consult the comprehensive Canadian Council on Social Development ( 2006 ) report on the relative hea lth and well -being of Canadian children compared to their counterparts in the USA and Mexico for further information on indicators of how well children are doing in contempor ary society. Aries, P. (1962). Centuries of childhood : A social history of family life. New York: Vintage Books. Campaign 2000 (2011). Revisiting family security in insecure times; 2011 Report card on child and family poverty in Canada . Retrieved from http://www.campaign2000.ca/reportCards/national/2011EnglishRreportCard.pdf Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology, Third Edition 14 Canadian Council on Social Development (2006). Growing up in North America: Child health and safety in Canada, the United Staes and Mexico . Retrieved from http://www.ccsd.ca/pubs/2006/cina/trihealth.pdf Conference Board of Canada (2012). Child poverty. Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/Details/society/child -poverty.aspx Hart, S. N. (1991). From property to person status: Historical perspectives on children's rights. American Psychologist, 46 , 53-59. Sommerville, J. (1990). The rise and fall of childhood. New York: Vintage Books. Statistics Canada; Canadian Centre for Justive Statistics. (2011). Family violence in Canada: A statistical profile. (Catalogue no. 85-224-X). Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85 -224-x/85-224-x2010000-eng.pdf 7. Adolescence: the history of a life stage. As the text notes, perspectives on children and the nature of childhood have varied across history. To illustrate this idea, focus on one stage - adolescence - and discuss changing views of this specific developmental period. An historical perspective on adolescence can facilitate an understanding of the ecological perspective, which emphasizes the impact of context on development ; History of Psychology published a special issue [Volume 9, (6)] in 2006 to discuss the ideas about adolescence of G . Stanley Hall and compare these with modern viewpoints. The Journal of Early Adolescence also published a special issue on the scientific study of adolescence in 2004 Volume 24(1). Note that generally speaking the text has relatively less emphasis on th e adolescent period so this enhancer is an opportunity to elaborate on this stage. Additional suggestions about topics that focus on adolescence and other later childhood stages will appear throughout the resource guide. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist , 55(5), 469-480. CBC. (2012). Surviving the teenage brain. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/episode/surviving -the-teenage-brain.html PBS. (2002). Inside the teenage brain. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/ Steinberg, L. (20110. Adolescence (9th ed.). 8. The whole child. Students may need to be reminded that altho ugh the text is structured topically the different domains (physical, cognitive, social, personality, etc.) are developing simultaneously. Discuss how it is also possible to study the identical course content chronologically. Also explain how psychology is a science that works with other sciences to develop a complete understanding of the child. The Up Series of films provide an excellent vantage point for studying the developing whole child and for understanding the longitudinal Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 15 approach to studying child development. This series began in 1963 with 7 Up when several Brit ish 7 year -olds from varied backgrounds were filmed in their home environments. The children were revisited every 7 years , and a corresponding new film was produced . The latest install ment is 49 Up. Apted, M. (Director). (2010). The Up series [DVD]. Knightscove -Ellis International 9. The growth and expansion of a theory: As theories are traditionally presented it may seem to students that they emerge as fully articulated and entrenched entities. In fact, it takes time, dissemination, and many adherents before a theory becomes sufficiently noteworthy to become included in most developmental texts. The expansion of Bronfenbrenner's theoretical model serves as a nice contemporary example of how theories proliferate and become standard course material. Both L. Steinberg and J. Belsky studied under Bronfenbrenner; each has publ ished widely in the developmental domain, has held positions at several universities, and serves on many editorial boards. Presenting the work of either or both can illustrate how a theory is translated into research topics, how those projects represent th e core themes of the theory, and how the theory comes to play an increasingly significant role in the field as a result of the successes of its adherents. Consider for example the unfolding of Steinberg's work, beginning with the publication of a litera ture review on day care (with Belsky, 1978). This was followed by publication of his dissertation material addressing changes in family interaction patterns as sons progressed through the process of pubertal development (1981). Shortly after coming to his first academic appointment, Steinberg undertook a project examining adolescent work experience (with Greenberger, 1986). Discussions of latchkey children (1986) and multiple studies exploring interrelations between adolescent adjustment and family systems (1991) followed. An explicit application of the contextual model is seen in his work on adolescent achievement issues (1989; 1992). At the same time, Steinberg has contributed some interesting speculative offerings, exploring evolutionary theory as it may facilitate understanding adolescent development and social problems such as adolescent pregnancy (1989; 1991). In recent years Steinberg’s work has investigated numerous aspects of adolescence such as risk taking (2004) brain development (2008; 2010), sex uality (2011), and others . Belsky, J., & Steinberg, L. D. (1978). The effects of day care: A critical review. Child Development , 49, 929 -949. Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. D., & Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproduc tive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development , 62, 647 -670. Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L. D. (1986). When teenagers work : The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment . New York: Basic Books. Steinberg, L. D. (1981). Transformations in family relations at puberty. Developmental Psychology , 17, 833-840. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology, Third Edition 16 Steinberg, L. D. (1986). Latchkey children and susceptibility to peer pressure: An ecological analysis. Developmental Psychology, 22, 433-439. Steinberg, L. D. (1989). Pubertal maturation and parent -adolescent distance: An evolutionary perspective. In G. Adams, R. Montemayor, & T. Gullota (Eds.), Advances in adolescent development, Vol. 1. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Press. 77-101. Steinberg, L. (2004). Risk taking in adolescence: What changes, and why? In R. E. Dahl, L. Spear, R. E. Dahl, L. Spear (Eds.) , Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and opportunities (pp. 51 -58). New York, NY US: New York Academy of Scien ces. Steinberg, L. D. (2007). Adolescence (8th ed.), - Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28(1), 78 -106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002 Steinberg, L. (2010). A behavioral scientist looks at the science of adolescent brain development. Brain And Cognition, 72(1), 160 -164. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.11.003 Steinberg, L. Dornbusch, S., & Brown, B. (1992) Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement: An ecological perspective. American Psychologist , 47, 723-729. Steinberg, L., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S., & Dornbusch, S. (1991). Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across various ecological niches. Journal of Research on Adolesce nce, 1, 19-36. Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2011). Adolescents' exposure to sexy media does not hasten the initiation of sexual intercourse. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 562 -576. doi:10.1037/a0020613 10. The Zeitgeist effect. Students often assume that research is separate from cultural and political factors and that research interests and theoretical questions develop within the context of science and are thus immune to personal and social influences. However, many historians of psychology have pointed to the Zeitgeist effect, i.e., that factors in the larger culture do influence the interests and research foci of psychologists. Developmental psychology reflects cultural concerns as well. There are a number of interesting exam ples that can be presented individually or in combination to illustrate the Zeitgeist effect. One example that is likely to be highly relevant to students is the enormous grow th in technology and digital media in recent years. Students could be asked to in terview older family members about life before the Internet and to bring these observations to class. Research on the relationship of technology to children’s education, play, communication skills, friendships and other topics is of great interest to stude nts. Discussion groups could focus on how children’s social -emotional, cognitive, and physical development might be affected by their interactions with technology. Instructors could consult the works below as good starting places for discussion , or any of the works of Marc Prensky (e.g., Prensky 2001). There are many Internet resources on the education and lives of digital natives such as Born digital; Understanding the first generation of digital natives (http://www.borndigitalbook.com/index.php). Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 17 The in structor and the students might easily think of other examples. Thus, a lecture could be developed in which the Zeitgeist Effect is defined and then illustrated with examples from developmental psychology. Greenfield, P., & Yan, Z. (2006). Children, adole scents, and the Internet: A new field of inquiry in developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology , 42(3), 391 -394. doi:10.1037/0012 - 1649.42.3.391 O’Keeffe, G., & Clarke -Pearson, K. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics , 127(4), 800 -804. doi:10.1542/peds.2011 -0054 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, digital immigrants, Part II: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon , 9(6). Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/ Prensky%20 - %20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20 -%20Part2.pdf Strom, R. D., & Strom, P. S. (2010). Parenting young children: Exploring the Internet, television, play, and reading . Charlotte, NC US Information Age Publishing. 11. Theoretical applications: Following the lecture on the three theoretical perspectives, divide students into groups of five or six. Each group will be responsible for restating the major points of one of the three theories and illustrating that theory's per spective on a common childhood issue. The instructor might select an issue that is personally interesting or one that is in the news at a particular time. Possible issues, each of which is susceptible to alternative interpretations depending upon the theor y utilized, could be divorce, teenage pregnancy, or sibling rivalry. Groups can be given 15 -20 minutes to restate the general themes of the theory and to identify how proponents of the theory would explain various developmental questions and outcomes. The use of a group exercise early in the course can have a beneficial effect on student participation throughout the term. Often the use of a focused discussion among a small group, with a single individual responsible for reporting the group's findings, break s the ice and encourages student questions and participation in general class discussion later. An alternative to this would be to develop a lecture that illustrates the similarities and differences between theoretical orientations by examining how resea rchers would approach a particular developmental domain. By focusing on a single developmental issue, instructors can demonstrate how different theoretical assumptions lead to different research questions and methodologies as well as explanations and inter pretations of data. One developmental issue that is relatively accessible to students early in the course is children's peer relations. Instructors might illustrate the cognitive -developmental approach to children's peer relations via children's conception s of friendship ( Meece & Mize, 2009; 2010 ) or the relationship between social - cognitive competence and problems with peers (Hoglund, Lalonde & Leadbeater , 2008 ). Environmental or learning approaches to children's peer relations focus on children as models and reinforcing agents (see Grauvogel -MacAleese and Wallace (2010) and Whiten and Flynn (2010). for interesting applied research). Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 18 A substantial amount of research has also been conducted in Canada on bullying behaviour ( Book, Volk, & Hosker, 2012; Pepler , Craig, Conno lly, Yuile, McMaster, & Jiang , 2006; Pepler, Jiang, Craig, & Connolly, 2008 ; Trach, Hymel, Waterhouse, & Neale, 2010 ; Vaillancourt, McDougall, Hymel, Krygsman, Miller, Stiver, & Davis, 2008 ; Walden & Beran, 2010 ). Book, A. S., Volk, A. A., & Hosker, A. (2012). Adolescent bullying and personality: An adaptive approach. Personality and Individual Differences , 52(2), 218 -223. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.028 Grauvogel -MacAleese, A. N., & Wallace, M. D. (2010). Use of peer-mediated intervention in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis , 43(3), 547-551. Hoglund, W. L., Lalonde, C. E., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2008). Social -cognitive competence, peer rejection and neglect, and behavior al and emotional problems in middle childhood. Social Development, 17(3), 528 -553. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 -9507.2007.00449.x Meece, D., & Mize, J. (2009). Cognitive representations of peer relationships: Linkages with discrete social cognition and social behavior. Early Child Development a nd Care , 179(5), 539-557. doi:10.1080/13619460701269609 Meece, D., & Mize, J. (2010). Multiple aspects of preschool children's social cognition: Relations with peer acceptance and peer interaction style. Early Child Development and Care , 180(5), 585 -604. doi:10.1080/03004430802181452 Pepler, D., Craig, W., Connolly, J., Yuile, A. ,McMaster, L. , & Jiang, D. (2006) A developmental perspective on bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32 (4), 376 -384. doi:10.1002/ab.20136 Peple r, D., Jiang, D., Craig, W., & Connolly, J. (2008). Developmental trajectories of bullying and associated factors. Child Development , 79(2), 325 -338. doi:10.1111/j.1467 - 8624.2007.01128.x Trach, J., Hymel, S., Waterhouse, T., & Neale, K. (2010). Bystander responses to school bullying: A cross -sectional investigation of grade and sex differences. Canadian Journal Of School Psychology , 25(1), 114-130. doi:10.1177/0829573509357553 Vaillancourt, T., McDougall, P., Hymel, S., Krygsman, A., Miller, J., Stiver, K., & Davis, C. (2008). Bullying: Are researchers and children/youth talking about the same thing?. International Journal Of Behavioral Development , 32(6), 486 -495. doi:10.1177/0165025408095553 Walden, L. M., & Beran, T. N. (2010). Attachment qual ity and bullying behavior in school -aged youth. Canadian Journal Of School Psychology , 25(1), 5 -18 Whiten, A., & Flynn, E. (2010). The transmission and evolution of experimental microcultures in groups of young children. Developmental Psychology , 46(6), 1 694-1709. doi:10.1037/a0020786 Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 19 B. Out -of-Class Activities: 1. Reading for discussion. Group discussion is useful in elaborating important theoretical and empirical material and in encouraging students to think about the concepts under consideration. A reading assignment prior to the group discussion can provide a common focus for that conv ersation, particularly if the material is provocative. One of the more interesting and accessible theorists whose work is suitable for an assignment of this type is David Elkind . His work, Ties that stress: The new family imbalance (1994) compares and cont rasts family system operations in the modern and post-modern family. Elkind's ideas are sure to provoke student responses. If the reading assignment is complemented by a request for a short reaction paper due the day of class discussion, students will be p repared for and able to contribute effectively. If there is some diversity within the class membership, there may well be contrasting ideas from students whose backgrounds are notably different from those examined by Elkind. Elkind's other works, The powe r of play (2007) The hurried child (1979), Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk (1987) , and All grownup and no place to go (1989), would also be appropriate for this assignment, particularly if a varied multifaceted discussion is sought. Students could be pu t on notice that there would be future opportunities to apply Elkind's concepts to other domains of child development (pop quizzes, essay questions, and the like). If a lecture enhancer is wanted to introduce the material and the theorist, the chapter The uses of academic conflict in the Merrens and Brannigan book would be helpful. Elkind, D. (1984). All grown and no place to go . Reading, MA: Addison -Wesley. Elkind, D. (1987). Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk. Reading, MA: Addison -Wesley. Elkind, D. (1 994). Ties that stress: The new family imbalance . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Elkind, D. (1996). The uses of academic conflict. In Merrens, M. R., & Brannigan, G. C. (Eds.) The developmental psychologists: Research adventures across the life span. New York: The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. 123 -136. Elkind, D. (2001). The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon . Reading, MA: Addison - Wesley. Elkind, D. (2005). Response to objectivism and education. The Educational Forum , 69(4), 328- 334. Elkind, D. (2006). The values of outdoor play. Exchange: The Early Childhood Leaders' Magazine Since 1978 , 171, 6-8. Elkind, D. (2007, November). Flights of fancy. Scholastic Parent and Child , 15(3), 38 -45. Elkind, D. (2007). The power of play. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 20 2. Exposure to cultural differences in child development through autobiographical literature. A number of powerful autobiographies have appeared recently, some on the best seller lists. Although most of these illustrate dramatic and unique circumstances, they serve as engaging and challenging introductions to diverse and often adverse conditions. Among these are Falling Leaves , Waiting for snow in Havana: Confessions of a Cuban boy , Don’t let’s go to the dogs tonight: An African childhood, and We are Witnesses . These can be used as introductions to cultural and historical differences, or they can s erve as a foundation for students’ considerations of basic developmental processes (physical or cognitive development) and contexts (family systems, peer relations) as they are mediated by the historical, cultural, and geo -political parameters described in these works. Boas, J. (1995). We are witnesses : Five diaries of teenagers who died in the Holocaust . New York: Scholastic. Eire, C. (2003). Waiting for snow in Havana: Confessions of a Cuban boy. New York: Free Press. Fuller, A. (2001). Don’t let’s go to the dogs tonight: an African childhood . New York: Random House. Mah, A. Y. (1998). Falling Leaves : The true story of an unwanted Chinese daughter . New York: John Wiley. 3. Cultural variations in the status of children. The text discusses the impact of historical periods on the status and experience of children. Although cultural variations in specific developmental processes are included in discussions throughout the text, this can be an opportunity for student s to begin their exploration of such differences early in the term. Students may do a library research project in which they explore data (Census or United Nations reports, for example) that suggest variations in treatment of children in different cultures . This material can be presented to the instructor in a brief written report or shared with the class in a brief oral report. An alternative to library research would be to identify one or more individuals within the larger community whose background (ethn icity, country of origin, or religious affiliation) would make them a good interviewee about alternatives to western perspectives on children. Again, the students could present either a brief written or oral report on their findings. 4. Artwork in the mi ddle ages. There has been some suggestion that artwork of the middle ages reflects the characterization of children during that period as “small adults” (i.e., children were pictured as short people with adult facial features and clothing engaging in adult activities). Not all historians agree with this characterization, however. Bring in copies of artwork from this period, and have them discuss whether or not children were really “small adults.” Aries, P. (1962). Centuries of childhood : a social history of family life. New York: Vintage Books. Borstelmann, L. J. (1983). Children before psychology: Ideas about children from antiquity to the late 1800s. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1). New York: Wiley. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 21 5. Child develo pment on popular television . Numerous reality TV programs depict children and families. These programs offer interesting starting points for discussions of the intersection of a variety of topics: child development, parenting, mass media, social perception s, and others. Students are very familiar with these programs and instructors can easily find online video clips on Youtube and elsewhere to spark discussion. Examples of programs include The Osbournes , Supernanny , Nanny 911 , Jon & Kate Plus 8 , and Toddle rs & Tiaras . RESOURCES A. Readings Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 333-341. Bandura, A. (1995). Self Efficacy: The exercise of control . New York: Freeman. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory. Annual Review of Psychology , Vol. 52, Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Beck, H. P., Levinson, S., & Irons, G. (2009). Finding little Albert: A journey to John B. Watson’s infant laboratory. American Psychologist , 64(7), 605 -614. Bjorklund, D. F., & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development , 71, 1687 -1708. Borstelmann , L. J. (1983). Children before psychology: Ideas about children from antiquity to the late 1800s. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology : Vol 1. History , theory , and methods . New York; Wiley. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature -nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568-586. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In R. M. Lerner, & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.): Vol. 1, Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793 -828). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Cairns, R. B. (1998). The making of developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.). Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., Vol 1). New York: Wiley. Available from http://www.hhdev.psu.edu/hdfs/courses/readings/Week1_Cairns_chapter2.pdf Del Campo, D., Del Campo, R., & Vaillancourt, K. (2012). Taking sides: Clashing views in childhood and society (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Dixon, W. E. (2002). Twenty studies that revolutionized child psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 22 Eisenberg, N., & Silver, R.C. (2011). Growing up in the shadow of terrorism: Youth in America after 9/11. American Psychologist , 66(6), 468 -481. Geary, D. C. & Bjorklund, D. F. (2000). Evolutionary developmental psychology. Child Development , 71, 57-65. Grusec, J. E. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28 , 776 -786. Jensen, L. A. (2011). Bridging cultural and developmental approaches to psychology; New syntheses in theory, research, and policy . New York: Oxford University Press. Keating, D. P. (Ed). (2 011) Nature and nurture in early child development . New York: Cambridge University Press. Liben, L. S (2008). Current directions in developmental psychology (2nd ed.). Allyn & Bacon Lourenco, O., & Machado, A. (1996). In defence of Piaget's theory: A rep ly to 10 common criticisms. Psychological Review , 103, 143 -164. Matusov, E. & Hayes, R. (2000). Sociocultural critique of Piaget and Vygotsky. New Ideas In Psychology , 18, 215 -239. Miller, P. H. ( 2009 ). Theories of developmental psychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth . Pickren, W., Dewbsury, D. A., & Wertheimer, M. (Eds.). (2011). Portaits of pioneers in developmental psychology . New York: Psychology Press Pinker, S. (2003). The blank slate: The modern de nial of human nature. New York: Viking. Salmon, C., & Shackelford, T. (Eds). (2011). The Oxford handbook of evolutionary family psychology . New York, Oxford University Press. Skinner, B. F. (1990). Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologi st, 45, 1206 - 1210. Vasta, R. (Ed). (1992). Six theories of child development: Revised formulations and current issues. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. B. Digital Resources Insight Media has a range of DVDs on topics related to child development. Some are available by streaming video or with CMS integrations. For more choices than those suggested below go to http://insight -media.com/BrochurePDFs/78.pdf Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 23 Davidson Films has a series called Giants of Psychology that combi nes archival and contemporary footage of a number of psychologists who have had a profound influence on the field of developmental psychology such as Erik Erikson, Mary Ainsworth, John Bowlby, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygostsky and B. F. Skinner. See http://www.da vidsonfilms.com/giants -of- psychology The podcast The Psychfiles has several accessible and entertaining episodes on various issues related to child development at http://www.thepsychfiles.com/category/topics/developmental/ Internet video repositories such as Youtube and Vimeo host innumerable and ever -increasing short film clips of relevance to developmental psychology —instructors should search by topic for current offerings. An American Family: Anniversary Edition , (2011) PBS. Portrays highlights from the 1973 “reality” series chronicling an America n family with 5 children during this imp ortant period in social history . See http://www.shoppbs.org/product/index.jsp?productId=11645510&cp=2729311.2883365&parent Page=family#Deta ils Babies (2010). Alliance Films Child Development, (2008 ). Insight Media. A 4-DVD set portraying various aspects of child development, such as emotional, social, and intellectual development, from infancy through four years of age. See http://www.insight - media.com/IMShop.aspx?ShopID=44&ShopName=Psychology Childhood, ( 2006 ) Ambr ose Video Publishing; 60 minutes. See http://www.ambrosevideo.com/items.cfm?id=1208 Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition Video 5: The Developing Child, (2001 ). Annenberg Learner .See http://www.learner.org/resources/series138.html Everybody Rides the C arousel, Pyramid . An animated film of Erikson’s 8 stages. See http://www.pyramiddirect.com/cart/productpage.html?title_id=2211&list=1881,1882,1883,1884, 1885,1886,2211&alpha=E History of childhood: Restoring childhood to the historical record . (n.d.). Retrieved from www.childhistory.org Secret of the Wild Child . (2007) WGBH Boston; 60 minutes. Study of the Child: Theories of Development , (2009 ). Insight Media; 29 minutes . See http://www.insight -media.com/IMShop.aspx?ShopID=44&ShopName=Psychology The Child from Seven to Twelve , (2001), Insight Media. See http://www.insight - media.com/IMShop.aspx?ShopID=44&ShopName=Psychology Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 1 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODS CHAPTER OUTLINE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The Role of Theory Objectivity and Measurement TYPES OF RESEARCH Descriptive Research Correlational Research Experimental Research STUDYING DEVELOPMENT Longitudinal Research Focus on Research: The Concordia Risk Study: A Canadian Longitudinal Investigation of Aggressive and Withdrawn Children Cross -Sectional Research Combining Longitudinal and Cross -Sectional Research Microgenetic Studies OTHER RESEAR CH TACTICS Cultural Research Comparative Research Psychophysiological Methods ETHICAL ISSUES Potential Risks Safeguards CONCLUSION Instructor’s Manual Younger, Adler, Vasta Child Psychology , Third Edition 2 CHAPTER SUMMARY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Developmental psychologists utilize the scientific method (the system of rules used by scientists in conducting and evaluating their research) in designing, conducting, evaluating, and communicating about research projects. The scientific method is a syste m of rules for investigation that can be used in many disciplines. The Role of Theory A theory is a set of statements describing the relation between a phenomenon and the factors assumed to influence it. A theory supported by considerable research evide nce is a law or principle , while a hypothesis postulates an as yet unsubstantiated relationship that will be tested in an experimental investigation. Theories are used to organize research findings and to guide new research. Researchers work within particu lar underlying theoretical orientations that define their domains of interest and suggest specific research questions. Objectivity and Measurement A critical element in theory -guided scientific research is objectivity (the requirement that the procedures and subject matter of investigation should be formulated so that they could, in principle, be agreed on by everyone). Use of objective methods allow s other scientists to replicate a study, and it reduces bias (e.g., expectancy). Objectivity is enhanced by focusing on behaviours that are observable, measurable, and quantifiable. Abstract concepts are defined behaviourally. For example, attachment can b e defined as smiling, and the frequency and duration of smiling can be measured. (See Table 2.1 for measurement options in psychological research.) TYPES OF RESEARCH The three major research methods used by child psychologists are descriptive research, correlational research, and experimentation. Descriptive Research Descriptive research consists of observing or interviewing individuals and recording the way things are. These methods are useful in establishing norms and generating hypotheses for futur e research. Observational methods can occur in naturalistic settings , where children’s behaviour is observed as they engage in everyday activities. Under many circumstances, the observer influences the behaviour simply by being there. This can be overcome by using less intrusive methods such as a hidden camera or a familiarization period. Sometimes researchers want a more standardized structured setting in order to observe how different children behave under the same circumstances.