(Test Bank) Anatomy And Physiology

Wilkin,Wilson,Brainard, 12

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Test Bank

12th Edition

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Test Bank for Anatomy And Physiology, The downloadable file consists of 499 pages, and the total size of the file is 9.45 MB. Purchase now only for highly discounted price.

Author(s): Wilkin, Wilson, Brainard

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Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D. Niamh Gray-Wilson Jean Brainard, Ph.D. Say Thanks to the Authors Click http://www.ck12.org/saythanks (No sign in required) To access a customizable version of this book, as well as otherinteractive content, visitwww.ck12.orgCK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission toreduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both inthe U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-source, collaborative, andweb-based compilation model, CK-12 pioneers and promotes thecreation and distribution of high-quality, adaptive online textbooksthat can be mixed, modified and printed (i.e., the FlexBook®textbooks).Copyright © 2016 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.orgThe names “CK-12” and “CK12” and associated logos and theterms “FlexBook®” and “FlexBook Platform®” (collectively“CK-12 Marks”) are trademarks and service marks of CK-12Foundation and are protected by federal, state, and internationallaws.Any form of reproduction of this book in any format or medium,in whole or in sections must include the referral attribution linkhttp://www.ck12.org/saythanks(placed in a visible location) inaddition to the following terms.Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12Curriculum Material) is made available to Users in accordancewith the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 3.0Unported (CC BY-NC 3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Com-mons from time to time (the “CC License”), which is incorporatedherein by this reference.Complete terms can be found athttp://www.ck12.org/about/terms-of-use.Printed: January 24, 2016 AUTHORS Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D. Niamh Gray-Wilson Jean Brainard, Ph.D. EDITOR Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced CHAPTER1 Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 Cells of the Human Body - Advanced 1.2 Tissues of the Human Body - Advanced 1.3 Human Organs and Organ Systems - Advanced 1.4 Homeostasis and the Human Body - Advanced 1.5 System Interactions in the Human Body - Advanced 1.6 Disruption of Homeostasis - Advanced 1.7 Carcinogens and Cancer - Advanced 1.8 Air Pollution and Illness - Advanced 1.9 Bioterrorism - Advanced 1.10 Nerve Cells - Advanced 1.11 The Nerve Impulse - Advanced 1.12 Communication Between Neurons - Advanced 1.13 The Central Nervous System - Advanced 1.14 The Peripheral Nervous System - Advanced 1.15 Sensory Perception - Advanced 1.16 Drugs and the Nervous System - Advanced 1.17 Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.18 The Endocrine System - Advanced 1.19 Hormones - Advanced 1.20 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland - Advanced 1.21 Endocrine Glands - Advanced 1.22 Regulation of the Endocrine System - Advanced 1.23 Endocrine System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.24 The Skeleton - Advanced 1.25 Bones - Advanced 1.26 Bone Formation - Advanced 1.27 Joints - Advanced 1.28 Skeletal System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.29 Muscular System Tissues - Advanced 1.30 Muscular System Structure - Advanced 1.31 Muscular System Contraction - Advanced 1www. ck12.org 1.32 Muscle Contraction Energy Supply - Advanced 1.33 Muscle Contraction Functions - Advanced 1.34 Muscle Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.35 Skin Form and Function - Advanced 1.36 Skin Form and Function - Advanced 1.37 Nails and Hair - Advanced 1.38 Skin Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.39 The Heart - Advanced 1.40 Blood Vessels - Advanced 1.41 Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations - Advanced 1.42 The Lymphatic System - Advanced 1.43 Circulatory System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.44 Composition of Blood - Advanced 1.45 Functions of Blood - Advanced 1.46 Blood Types - Advanced 1.47 Blood Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.48 The Respiratory System - Advanced 1.49 Respiratory System Structures - Advanced 1.50 A Breath of Air - Advanced 1.51 Control of Breathing - Advanced 1.52 Respiratory System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.53 Nutrients, Energy, and Building Materials - Advanced 1.54 Balanced Eating - Advanced 1.55 Vitamins and Minerals - Advanced 1.56 Eating Disorders - Advanced 1.57 Digestive System Organs - Advanced 1.58 The Start of Digestion - Advanced 1.59 The Small Intestine - Advanced 1.60 The Large Intestine - Advanced 1.61 Digestive System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.62 The Excretory System - Advanced 1.63 Kidneys and Excretion - Advanced 1.64 Kidneys and Homeostasis - Advanced 1.65 Excretory System Diseases and Disorders - Advanced 1.66 Barriers to Pathogens - Advanced 1.67 The Inflammatory Response - Advanced 1.68 The Lymphatic System - Advanced 2www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced 1.69 Antigen Recognition - Advanced 1.70 The Humoral Immune Response - Advanced 1.71 Cell-Mediated Immune Response - Advanced 1.72 Immunity - Advanced 1.73 Allergies - Advanced 1.74 Autoimmune Diseases - Advanced 1.75 Immunodeficiency Diseases - Advanced 1.76 HIV and AIDS - Advanced 1.77 Male Reproductive System Development - Advanced 1.78 Male Reproductive System Organs - Advanced 1.79 Sperm - Advanced 1.80 Female Reproductive System Development - Advanced 1.81 Female Reproductive System Organs - Advanced 1.82 Egg Cells - Advanced 1.83 The Menstrual Cycle - Advanced 1.84 Fertilization, Cleavage, and Implantation - Advanced 1.85 The Human Embryo - Advanced 1.86 The Human Fetus - Advanced 1.87 The Placenta and Related Structures - Advanced 1.88 Pregnancy and Childbirth - Advanced 1.89 Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence - Advanced 1.90 Adulthood and Old Age - Advanced 1.91 Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Advanced 1.92 Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Advanced 1.93 Viral Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Advanced 1.94 References Introduction The Human Body. A miraculous organism formed from vastly different organs and organ systems. While the word "organ" primarily brings to mind internal organs, such as the stomach or heart, we must not forget that the skin is an organ too. Though thin, averaging only 2 mm in thickness, it covers a large area - about 2 m2in adults, making it the largest organ of the human body. What are the organs within our bodies? How does each organ function? How do all these organs come together to form the human body? The Anatomy and Physiology Lessons approach these questions, providing a clear understanding of the functions of each organ and how the organ systems interact. 31.1. Cells of the Human Body - Advanced www. ck12.org1.1Cells of the Human Body - Advanced •Outline the role of a specialized cell. •Understand the difference between cells and stem cells. •Understand the process of cell differentiation, and determine which types of cells undergo differentiation. •List three types of stem cells. How is the human body similar to a well-tuned machine? Over and over, the human body is compared to a complex piece of machinery. Like any common machine, the human body is composed of a variety of parts, each working separately, but also working together. As a preview of the human machine, the Emmy award-winning video, Inside The Living Body, can be viewed at http://www.y outu be.com/w atch?v=chqwS h4ii84&f eature=related(1:30). MEDIA Click image to the left or use the URL below. URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/470 Cells Cells are the most basic units of life in your body, and each cell is specialized, with a specific function. Nerve cells transmit electrical messages around the body, and white blood cells attack invading bacteria throughout the body. Other cells include specialized cells in the kidney (such as kidney glomerulus parietal cells), brain (such as astrocytes), stomach (such as parietal cells), and muscles (such as red and white skeletal muscle fibers). Cells group together to form tissues; different tissues work together to form organs. This grouping of cells and tissues is referred to as levels of organization. Complex multicellular organisms, which include flatworms and humans, have different levels of organization. The human body’s levels begin with cells and conclude with the entire organism. Flatworms, though they lack specialized circulatory and respiratory systems, also have levels of organization ranging from cells to the entire organism. Differentiation Every cell in the body originates from a single fertilized egg called a zygote. The zygote divides repeatedly to produce an embryo. These embryonic cells continue to divide, differentiating into all the cell types present in the body of all humans (and other mammals), from a new-born baby to an elderly adult. Differentiation is the process by which an unspecialized cell, such as a fertilized egg cell, divides many times to produce specialized cells. During differentiation, certain genes are turned on, or become activated, while other genes are switched off, becoming inactivated. This process is regulated by the cell. A differentiated cell will develop specific structures and perform certain functions. A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types within a body is called totipotent. They have “total potential” to differentiate into any cell type. In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent. A cell that is able to differentiate into many, but not all, cell types is called pluripotent. Such cells have “plural potential” 4www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced FIGURE 1.1 Different types of cells in the human body are specialized for specific jobs. Do you know the functions of any of the cell types shown here? (but not “total potential”) to differentiate into most cell types. The Figure 1.2gives a visual representation of cell differentiation. Stem Cells An unspecialized cell that can divide and give rise to different specialized cells is called a stem cell (see the Figure 1.2). Zygotes and embryonic cells are both types of stem cells. These stem cells, called embryonic stem cells, can divide indefinitely and can specialize into any cell type. They are totipotent. In contrast, adult stem cells, also known as somatic stem cells, are undifferentiated cells found within the body that divide to replace dying cells and damaged tissues. Adult stem cells can divide indefinitely and generate all the cell types of the organ from which they originate. They can potentially re-grow the entire organ from just a few cells. A third type of stem cell is found in both the blood from the umbilical cord of a new-born baby and the placenta. These "cord blood stem cells" are considered to be adult stem cells because they cannot generate all body cell types, just different types of blood cells. Adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells are pluripotent. Stem Cells in Medicine Stem cells are of great interest to researchers because of their ability to both divide indefinitely and differentiate into many cell types. Stem cells have many existing and even more potential therapeutic applications. Such therapies include treatments for cancer, blood disorders, brain or spinal cord injuries, and blindness. Embryonic stem cells, shown in the Figure 1.3, are taken from eggs that were donated to research and fertilized in the laboratory. These stem cells may have the greatest potential because they are totipotent and thus have the most potential medical applications. However, embryonic stem cells are relatively controversial. Some individuals and groups have objections to the harvesting of embryonic stem cells because harvesting the stem cells involves the destruction of the embryo. Some researchers are looking into methods of extracting embryonic stem cells without 51.1. Cells of the Human Body - Advanced www. ck12.org FIGURE 1.2 Division and differentiation of stem cells into specialized cells. destroying the actual embryo. Other researchers have claimed success in harvesting embryonic stem cells from the embryonic fluid that surrounds a growing fetus. Additionally, stem cells harvested from a donated embryo differ from a potential patient’s tissue type. Therefore, just as in organ transplantation, there is a risk that the patient’s body may reject the transplanted embryonic stem cells. For more information regarding human embryonic stem cells and 6www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced FIGURE 1.3 A human embryonic stem cell colony, which was grown in a laboratory on a feeder layer of mouse cells. their uses, visit http://www.s uman asinc.com/we bcontent/animations/content/stemcells_scnt.html. An animation of stem cell procedures is available at http://www.p bs.org/newsh our/health/stem_ cells.swf. Adult stem cells, including cord blood stem cells, have already been used to treat diseases of the blood such as sickle-cell anemia and certain types of cancer. Unlike embryonic stem cells, the use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not controversial because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Adult stem cells can be isolated from tissue samples, such as bone marrow, of a patient. Scientists have recently discovered more sources of adult stem cells in the body including in body fat, the inside lining of the nose, and the brain. Some researchers are investigating ways to revert adult stem cells back to a totipotent stage. Vocabulary •adult stem cell : Pluripotent stem cells. •cell: The basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms. •differentiation : The process by which cells become specialized. •embryonic stem cell : Totipotent stem cells found in zygotes and embryos. •pluripotent : Cells with plural potential, or the ability to divide into multiple types of cells. •stem cell : Undifferentiated cells that can regenerate indefinitely. •totipotent : Cells with total potential, or the ability to divide into any type of cell. Summary •Cells are the most basic units of life found in the human body and any living organism. •Stem cells undergo the process of differentiation to become specialized cells. Practice Use this resource to answer the questions that follow. 71.1. Cells of the Human Body - Advanced www. ck12.org •Cell Differentiation Stem Cell Research athttps://www. youtube.com/ watch?v= RLfB 5Yfw Geg (4:27). MEDIA Click image to the left or use the URL below. URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139384 1.When did scientists first understand the idea of differentiation? 2.What changes in a totipotent cell to make it specialize? 3.Can a blood stem cell become a muscle, brain, and/or liver cell? Practice Answers 1.Differentiation was first explained in the late 19thcentury. 2.Scientists do not yet know. 3.Yes. Cells are not irreversibly determined, and these changes have all been completed in laboratory settings. Review 1.What are totipotent and pluripotent cells? 2.What are stem cells? Where do they come from? Review Answers 1.Totipotent cells are cells that can differentiate into any type of cell in the body. Pluripotent cells can differen- tiate into multiple types of cells, but not all. 2.A stem cell is any unspecialized cell. They come from zygotes and embryonic cells. In addition, adult stem cells can replace dying and damaged tissue cells from the same tissue. 8www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced1.2Tissues of the Human Body - Advanced •Identify the four tissue types found in the human body. Muscle, connective, skeletal, and epithelial. What do these have in common? Tissues Atissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. The simplest living, multicellular organisms, sponges, are made of many specialized types of cells that work together for a common goal. Such cell types include digestive cells, tubular pore cells, and epidermal cells. Though the different cell types create a large organized, multicellular structure—the visible sponge—they are not organized into true tissues. If a sponge is broken up by passing it through a sieve, the sponge will reform on the other side. More complex organisms, such as jellyfish, coral, and sea anemones, have a tissue level of organization. For example, jellyfish have tissues that have separate protective, digestive, and sensory functions. There are four basic types of tissues in the bodies of all animals including the human body. These make up all the organs, structures, and other contents of the body. The Figure 1.5shows an example of each tissue type. The four basic types of tissues are epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective. 91.2. Tissues of the Human Body - Advanced www. ck12.org FIGURE 1.4 The human body consists of these four tissue types. FIGURE 1.5 (a) A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) image of lung trachea epithelial tissue. (b) A transmission electron mi- crograph (TEM) image of skeletal muscle tissue. (c) A light microscope image of neurons of nervous tissue. (d) Red blood cells, a connective tissue. Epithelial tissue is made up of a layer or layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body. The largest example of epithelial tissue (also the largest organ in the human body) is the skin. Mammalian skin consists of stratified epithelium, which has several layers of cells. The outermost layers of cells, called squamous cells, are flat plate-like cells, while the deeper layers are roughly cube shaped and called cuboidal cells. Epithelial tissue has multiple functions, but it serves primarily to protect, absorb, and secrete. As you probably already know, our skin organ covers our entire body and protects underlying tissues from bacteria, chemicals, and other injury. Epithelial cells also line the small intestine where they absorb nutrients, and similar cells in the glands secrete enzymes and hormones. Muscle tissue encompasses not only the muscles, such as those in our legs or fingers, that we actively control, but also the tissue that forms most of our internal organs. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle tissue forms what we think of as our muscles; it is attached to our bones by our tendons and can be relaxed or contracted voluntarily. Similar in structure to skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the walls of the heart. The major difference, however, is that cardiac muscle is involuntary and cannot be actively controlled. Similarly, smooth muscle, which forms the muscle layers in internal organs such as the digestive tract and bladder, is an involuntary tissue. Smooth muscle tissue controls slow involuntary movements such as stomach wall contractions and the contractions of arteries to regulate blood flow. 10www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced Nervous tissue is made up of the nerve cells (neurons) that form the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. These cells are especially responsive to stimuli, allowing nervous tissue to transmit stimuli from the brain to the body extremely rapidly. Connective tissue connects, supports, or separates other tissues and organs. Connective tissue proper, a form of connective tissue, can be either loose or dense. Adipose tissue, or fat, is loose connective tissue, while tendons and ligaments, composed of collagen, are examples of dense connective tissue. Other forms of connective tissue include blood (fluid connective tissue) and cartilage and bone (both forms of supporting connective tissue). Vocabulary •connective tissue : Various types of tissue that connect, support, or separate other tissues and organs. •epithelial tissue : Tissue composed of the layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of the body. •muscle tissue : Soft tissue consisting of contractile filaments that change the cells’ size. •nervous tissue : The tissue of the nervous system, made up of neurons. •tissue : An aggregation of similar cells that work together to carry out a specific function within the organ- ism/body. Summary •Tissues are composed of cells, and multiple tissues together constitute an organ. •The human body has four types of tissues: nervous, muscle, connective, and epithelial. Practice Use this resource to answer the questions that follow. •The Four Tissue Types athttps://www. youtube.com/ watch?v= tKWT J3_-1E8 . (6:38) MEDIA Click image to the left or use the URL below. URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139399 1.What are some different types of connective tissue? 2.What is the extracellular matrix? 3.What are the differences between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissue? Practice Answers 1.Loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, adipose, cartilage, bone, and blood are all types of connective tissue. 2.An extracellular matrix is a support structure that surrounds the cells of the body, keeping the cells in place and providing other functions to the cells such as inter-cellular communication. 3.Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated, or striped, while smooth muscle cells are not. Skeletal muscles are connected in a linear fashion, while cardiac muscle cells are more branched and connect to multiple other cells. Smooth muscle cells, as the name implies, are not striated. 111.2. Tissues of the Human Body - Advanced www. ck12.org Answers to the in-video questions: 1.A tissue is a group of cells organized to form a specific function. 2.False. Connective tissue is suspended in an extracellular matrix. 3.When we have conscious, intentional control over a group of muscles, they are said to be voluntary. Review 1.What are the four types of tissues? Give an example of each. 2.What is the difference between tissue and cellular level organization? 3.Are there any organisms that do not have tissue structures? If yes, what organism(s)? Review Answers 1.Muscle - heart, skeletal muscles, and gastrointestinal. Nervous - neurons. Epithelial - skin. Connective - blood, bone, and adipose. 2.Tissues are groups of connected cells; while cells can exist outside of tissues, tissues cannot exist without cells. 3.Yes. Sponges have only a cellular level of organization. 12www. ck12.org Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology - Advanced1.3Human Organs and Organ Systems - Ad-vanced•Summarize how tissues and organs relate to each other. •Identify the defining features of organs and organ systems. •Understand the relationship between organs and organ systems. 13