(Solution Manual) Practices of Irrigation and On farm Water Management (Volume 2)

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Practices of Irrigation & On-farm WaterManagement: V olume 2M.H. Ali Practices of Irrigation& On-farm WaterManagement: V olume 2 Foreword by M.A. Salam 123Dr. M.H. Ali Agricultural Engineering DivisionBangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) Mymensingh 2202, BAU CampusBangladeshhossain.ali.bina@gmail.com(URL: www.mhali.com) ISBN 978-1-4419-7636-9 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7637-6 Springer New Y ork Dordrecht Heidelberg London © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New Y ork,NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Usein connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer soft-ware, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they arenot identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subjectto proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword Agricultural technologies are very important to feed the growing world population.Scientific principles of agricultural engineering have been applied for the optimaluse of natural resources in agricultural production for the benefit of humankind. Therole of agricultural engineering is increasing in the coming days at the forthcomingchallenges of producing more food with less water, coupled with pollution hazardin the environment and climate uncertainty. Irrigation is continually straining our limited natural resources. Whether it is through salinity, waterlogging, sedimentation, nutrient transport, or excessive waterconsumption, irrigation has an impact on our natural ecosystems. It is thereforeimportant that the irrigation system is properly designed, monitored, and executednot only for the benefit of the irrigator but also for the wider community. I am happy to know that a book (2nd volume in series) entitled “ Practices of Irrigation and On-farm Water Management ,” written by Engr. Dr. M. H. Ali, is going to be published by Springer. This book is designed to cover the major fieldsof applied agricultural engineering such as designing water conveyance systems,selecting and designing irrigation systems, land and watershed management, per-formance evaluation of irrigation systems, drainage system, water resources man-agement, management of salt-affected soils, pumps, renewable energy for irrigation,models and crop production functions in irrigation management, and GIS inirrigation management. This book will be quite useful for the students of agricultural engineering. Students of other related branches of engineering sciences, and engineers work-ing in the field and at research institutes, will also be benefited. The book may serveas a textbook for the students and as a practical handbook for the practitioners andresearchers in the field of irrigation and on-farm water management. Utilization ofthe recent literature in the area and citation of relevant journals/reports have addeda special value to this book. vvi Foreword I hope this textbook will be used worldwide to promote agricultural production and conservation of the most important natural resource, water. (Dr. M.A. Salam) Mymensingh, Bangladesh Director (Research)May, 2010 Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear AgriculturePreface Crop production depends on the successful implementation of the agricultural andwater management technologies. This is vital to feed the growing world population.The implementation of technologies is also important to minimize environmentaldegradation resulting from agricultural activities. Agricultural and natural resourcesengineers are applying scientific principles for the optimal use of natural resourcesin agricultural production. Water is the scarcest resource. The importance of the judicious use of water in agricultural sector for sustaining agricultural growth and the retardation of environ-mental degradation needs no elaboration. Judicious use of water for crop productionrequires knowledge of water conveyance and application methods, their design-ing, strategic management of water resources, land and watershed management, etc.Increasing efficiency in conveyance and pumping systems are also of great concern.Irrigation management strategy practiced in normal soils may not be appropriate inproblematic soils such as saline soils. This book covers all of the above aspects.In addition, the book covers some recent dimensions such as pollution from agri-cultural fields, modeling in irrigation and water management, application of thegeographical information system (GIS) in irrigation and water management, andrenewable energy resources for irrigation. Sample workout problems are providedto explain the design and application methodologies in practice. The comprehensive and compact presentation of this book will serve as a text- book for undergraduate students in Agricultural Engineering, Biological SystemsEngineering, Bio-Science Engineering, Water Resource Engineering, and, Civil andEnvironmental Engineering. It will also be helpful for the students of relevant fieldssuch as Agronomy, Biological Sciences, and Hydrology. Although the target audi-ence of this book is undergraduate students, postgraduate students will also bebenefited from the book. It will also serve as a reference manual for field engineers,researchers, and extension workers in several fields such as agricultural engi-neering, agronomy, ecology, hydrology, civil, water resource, and environmentalengineering. Effort was made to keep the language as simple as possible, keeping in mind the readers of different language origins. Throughout the book, the emphasis has beenon general descriptions and principles of each topic, technical details, and modeling viiviii Preface aspects. However, the comprehensive journal references in each area should enablethe reader to pursue further studies of special interest. In fact, the book covers broadinterdisciplinary subjects. Dr. M.H. Ali Mymensingh, BangladeshAcknowledgment I acknowledge the cooperation, suggestions, and encouragement of the facultymembers of the Department of Irrigation and Water Management, BangladeshAgricultural University. I would like to thank Engr. Dr. M. A. Ghani, former DirectorGeneral of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, and World Bank CountryRepresentative, Bangladesh, who critically reviewed the content and structure ofseveral chapters of the Book. I would also like to thank the scientists and staffs ofAgricultural Engineering Division, Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture, fortheir cooperation in various ways. Thanks are due to Dr. M. A. Salam, Director (Research), Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture, for going through the book and writing few words about thesame in the form of a “Foreword.” I am grateful to the authority of Soil Moisture Co. for supplying the pictures of their products and giving me permission to use the same in the book. My sincere thanks are also due to my affectionate wife Anjumanara Begham, daughter, Sanjida Afiate, and son, Irfan Sajid, for their support, understanding, andpatience during the preparation of the manuscript. Dr. M.H. Ali Mymensingh, BangladeshMay, 2010 ixContents 1 Water Conveyance Loss and Designing Conveyance System .... 1 1.1 Water Conveyance Loss . . . .................. 2 1.1.1 Definition of Seepage ................. 2 1.1.2 Factors Affecting Seepage . ............. 2 1.1.3 Expression of Seepage . . . ............. 3 1.1.4 Measurement of Seepage . . ............. 4 1.1.5 Estimation of Average Conveyance Loss i n a C o m m a n d A r e a ................. 7 1.1.6 Reduction of Seepage . . . ............. 8 1.1.7 Lining for Reducing Seepage Loss . . ........ 8 1.2 Designing Open Irrigation Channel . . ............. 1 0 1.2.1 Irrigation Channel and Open Channel Flow . .... 1 0 1.2.2 Definition Sketch of an Open Channel Section . . . 101.2.3 Considerations in Channel Design . . ........ 1 1 1.2.4 Calculation of V elocity of Flow in Open Channel . . 121.2.5 Hydraulic Design of Open Irrigation Channel .... 1 4 1.2.6 Sample Examples on Irrigation Channel Design . . . 18 1 . 3 D e s i g n i n g P i p e f o r I r r i g a t i o n W a t e r F l o w ............ 2 1 1.3.1 Fundamental Theories of Water Flow Through Pipe . . . .................. 2 1 1.3.2 Water Pressure – Static and Dynamic Head . .... 2 3 1.3.3 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Line for Pipe Flow . . 251.3.4 Types of Flow in Pipe – Reynolds Number . .... 2 5 1 . 3 . 5 V e l o c i t y P r o fi l e o f P i p e F l o w ............. 2 61 . 3 . 6 H e a d L o s s i n P i p e F l o w a n d I t s C a l c u l a t i o n ..... 2 61 . 3 . 7 D e s i g n i n g P i p e S i z e f o r I r r i g a t i o n W a t e r F l o w .... 3 11 . 3 . 8 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m s.............. 3 2 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 3 2Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 3 3References ................................ 3 4 2 Water Application Methods ...................... 3 5 2.1 General Perspectives of Water Application . . . ........ 3 6 2.2 Classification of Water Application Methods . . ........ 3 6 xixii Contents 2.3 Description of Common Methods of Irrigation . ........ 3 8 2 . 3 . 1 B o r d e r I r r i g a t i o n ................... 3 82 . 3 . 2 B a s i n I r r i g a t i o n.................... 4 02 . 3 . 3 F u r r o w I r r i g a t i o n................... 4 32 . 3 . 4 S p r i n k l e r I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m s ............. 4 62.3.5 Drip Irrigation . . .................. 5 2 2 . 3 . 6 O t h e r F o r m s o f I r r i g a t i o n ............... 5 4 2 . 4 S e l e c t i o n o f I r r i g a t i o n M e t h o d ................. 5 6 2.4.1 Factors Affecting Selection of an Irrigation M e t h o d ........................ 5 6 2.4.2 Selection Procedure ................. 6 3 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 6 3Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 6 3 3 Irrigation System Designing ...................... 6 5 3.1 Some Common Issues in Surface Irrigation S y s t e m D e s i g n i n g........................ 6 63 . 1 . 1 D e s i g n P r i n c i p l e o f S u r f a c e I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m.... 6 63.1.2 V ariables in Surface Irrigation System ........ 6 7 3.1.3 Hydraulics in Surface Irrigation System . . . .... 6 7 3.2 Border Irrigation System Design . . . ............. 6 8 3.2.1 Definition of Relevant Terminologies ........ 6 8 3.2.2 General Overview and Considerations ........ 6 9 3.2.3 Factors Affecting Border Performance and Design . 703 . 2 . 4 D e s i g n P a r a m e t e r s .................. 7 03.2.5 Design Approaches and Procedures for Border . . . 713 . 2 . 6 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m s.............. 7 33 . 2 . 7 S i m u l a t i o n M o d e l i n g f o r B o r d e r D e s i g n....... 7 63.2.8 Existing Software Tools/Models for Border Irrigation Design and Analysis ............ 7 7 3.2.9 General Guidelines for Border ............ 7 9 3.3 Basin Irrigation Design . . . .................. 7 9 3.3.1 Factors Affecting Basin Performance and Design . . 793 . 3 . 2 H y d r a u l i c s i n B a s i n I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m........ 8 13 . 3 . 3 S i m u l a t i o n M o d e l i n g f o r B a s i n D e s i g n ....... 8 23.3.4 Existing Models for Basin Irrigation Design . .... 8 4 3.4 Furrow Irrigation System Design . . . ............. 8 4 3 . 4 . 1 H y d r a u l i c s o f F u r r o w I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m ....... 8 53.4.2 Mathematical Description of Water Flow in F u r r o w I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m ............... 8 6 3 . 4 . 3 S o m e R e l e v a n t T e r m i n o l o g i e s ............ 8 73.4.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Furrow Irrigation System . .................. 9 0 3.4.5 Management Controllable V ariables and D e s i g n V a r i a b l e s ................... 9 1Contents xiii 3 . 4 . 6 F u r r o w D e s i g n C o n s i d e r a t i o n s............ 9 23.4.7 Modeling of Furrow Irrigation System ........ 9 2 3.4.8 General Guideline/Thumb Rule for Furrow Design . 943.4.9 Estimation of Average Depth of Flow from V olume Balance . .................. 9 5 3.4.10 Suggestions for Improving Furrow Irrigations .... 9 6 3.4.11 Furrow Irrigation Models . . ............. 9 6 3 . 4 . 1 2 S a m p l e W o r k e d O u t P r o b l e m s............ 9 7 3 . 5 D e s i g n o f S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m................... 9 8 3.5.1 Design Aspects . . .................. 9 8 3.5.2 Theoretical Aspects in Sprinkler System . . . .... 9 9 3 . 5 . 3 S p r i n k l e r D e s i g n ................... 1 0 1 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 1 0 6Relevant FAO Papers/Reports ...................... 1 0 7 Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 1 0 7References ................................ 1 0 9 4 Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Projects ............ 1 1 1 4.1 Irrigation Efficiencies ...................... 1 1 2 4 . 1 . 1 A p p l i c a t i o n E f fi c i e n c y ................ 1 1 24.1.2 Storage Efficiency/Water Requirement Efficiency . . 1144.1.3 Irrigation Uniformity ................. 1 1 4 4.1.4 Low-Quarter Distribution Uniformity ( o r D i s t r i b u t i o n U n i f o r m i t y ) ............. 1 1 5 4.2 Performance Evaluation . . . .................. 1 1 6 4.2.1 Concept, Objective, and Purpose of Performance Evaluation . ............. 1 1 6 4.2.2 Factors Affecting Irrigation Performance . . .... 1 1 7 4.2.3 Performance Indices orI n d i c a t o r s .......... 1 1 8 4 . 2 . 4 D e s c r i p t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t I n d i c a t o r s .......... 1 2 04.2.5 Performance Evaluation Procedure . . ........ 1 2 6 4.2.6 Performance Evaluation Under Specific Irrigation System . .................. 1 2 8 4.2.7 Improving Performance of Irrigation System .... 1 3 4 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 1 3 7Relevant FAO Papers/Reports ...................... 1 3 7 Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 1 3 7References ................................ 1 3 7 5 Water Resources Management .................... 1 3 9 5.1 Concept, Perspective, and Objective of Water Resources Management . . . .................. 1 4 0 5.1.1 Concept of Management . . ............. 1 4 0 5 . 1 . 2 W a t e r a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t .............. 1 4 15.1.3 Increasing Competition in Water Resource . .... 1 4 1 5.1.4 Water As an Economic Good ............. 1 4 2xiv Contents 5.1.5 Purposes and Goals of Water Resources Management . . . .................. 1 4 3 5.1.6 Fundamental Aspects of Water Resources Management . . . .................. 1 4 4 5.2 Estimation of Demand and Supply of Water . . ........ 1 4 4 5 . 2 . 1 D e m a n d E s t i m a t i o n .................. 1 4 45.2.2 Estimation of Potential Supply of Water . . . .... 1 4 6 5.2.3 Issues of Groundwater Development in S a l i n e / C o a s t a l A r e a s ................. 1 4 8 5 . 2 . 4 E n v i r o n m e n t a l F l o w A s s e s s m e n t ........... 1 4 8 5.3 Strategies for Water Resources Management . . ........ 1 5 0 5.3.1 Demand Side Management . ............. 1 5 0 5.3.2 Supply Side Management . ............. 1 6 1 5.3.3 Integrated Water Resources Management . . .... 1 7 0 5.4 Sustainability Issues in Water Resource Management . .... 1 7 3 5.4.1 Concept of Sustainability . . ............. 1 7 3 5.4.2 Scales of Sustainability . . . ............. 1 7 5 5.4.3 Achieving Sustainability . . ............. 1 7 5 5.4.4 Strategies to Achieve Sustainability . ........ 1 7 7 5.5 Conflicts in Water Resources Management . . . ........ 1 7 8 5.5.1 Meaning of Conflict ................. 1 7 8 5.5.2 Water Conflicts in the Integrated Water Resources Management Process . . . ........ 1 7 9 5.5.3 Scales of Conflicts in Water Management . . .... 1 8 0 5.5.4 Analysis of Causes of Conflicts in Water Management . . . .................. 1 8 4 5.6 Impact of Climate Change on Water Resource . ........ 1 8 5 5.6.1 Issues on Water Resources in Connection to Climate Change . . .................. 1 8 5 5.6.2 Adaptation Alternatives to the Climate Change . . . 186 5.7 Challenges in Water Resources Management . . ........ 1 8 8 5.7.1 Risk and Uncertainties . . . ............. 1 8 8 5.7.2 International/Intra-national (Upstream– D o w n s t r e a m ) I s s u e s ................. 1 8 8 5.7.3 Quality Degradation Due to Continuous Pumping of Groundwater . . ............. 1 8 8 5.7.4 Lowering of WT and Increase in Cost o f P u m p i n g...................... 1 8 9 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 1 8 9Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 1 9 0References ................................ 1 9 0 6 Land and Watershed Management .................. 1 9 3 6.1 Concepts and Scale Consideration . . ............. 1 9 4 6.2 Background and Issues Related to Watershed Management . . 195Contents xv 6.2.1 Water Scarcity . . .................. 1 9 6 6.2.2 Floods, Landslides, and Torrents . . . ........ 1 9 6 6 . 2 . 3 W a t e r P o l l u t i o n.................... 1 9 66.2.4 Population Pressure and Land Shrinkage . . .... 1 9 6 6.3 Fundamental Aspects of Watershed Management . . . .... 1 9 7 6 . 3 . 1 E l e m e n t s o f W a t e r s h e d................ 1 9 76.3.2 How the Watershed Functions ............ 1 9 8 6.3.3 Factors Affecting Watershed Functions . . . .... 1 9 8 6.3.4 Importance of Watershed Management . . . .... 1 9 8 6 . 3 . 5 A d d r e s s i n g / N a m i n g a W a t e r s h e d ........... 1 9 8 6 . 4 L a n d G r a d i n g i n W a t e r s h e d................... 1 9 9 6.4.1 Concept, Purpose, and Applicability . ........ 1 9 9 6 . 4 . 2 P r e c i s i o n G r a d i n g ................... 2 0 06.4.3 Factors Affecting Land Grading a n d D e v e l o p m e n t................... 2 0 1 6.4.4 Activities and Design Considerations in Land Grading 2036.4.5 Methods of Land Grading and Estimating E a r t h w o r k V o l u m e .................. 2 0 5 6.5 Runoff and Sediment Yield from Watershed . . ........ 2 1 2 6.5.1 Runoff and Erosion Processes ............ 2 1 2 6.5.2 Factors Affecting Runoff . . ............. 2 1 3 6.5.3 Runoff V olume Estimation . ............. 2 1 4 6 . 5 . 4 F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g S o i l E r o s i o n............ 2 1 96.5.5 Sediment Yield and Its Estimation . . ........ 2 2 1 6.5.6 Sample Workout Problems on Sediment Y i e l d E s t i m a t i o n ................... 2 2 3 6.5.7 Erosion and Sedimentation Control . ........ 2 2 5 6.5.8 Modeling Runoff and Sediment Yield ........ 2 2 6 6.6 Watershed Management . . . .................. 2 2 7 6 . 6 . 1 P r o b l e m I d e n t i fi c a t i o n ................ 2 2 76.6.2 Components of Watershed Management . . . .... 2 2 8 6.6.3 Watershed Planning and Management ........ 2 2 9 6 . 6 . 4 T o o l s f o r W a t e r s h e d P r o t e c t i o n ............ 2 3 06.6.5 Land Use Planning .................. 2 3 0 6.6.6 Structural Management . . . ............. 2 3 0 6.6.7 Pond Management .................. 2 3 1 6 . 6 . 8 R e g u l a t o r y A u t h o r i t y................. 2 3 16.6.9 Community-Based Approach to Watershed Management . . . .................. 2 3 1 6.6.10 Land Use Planning and Practices . . . ........ 2 3 4 6.6.11 Strategies for Sustainable Watershed Management . . . .................. 2 3 5 6.7 Watershed Restoration and Wetland Management . . . .... 2 3 6 6 . 7 . 1 W a t e r s h e d R e s t o r a t i o n ................ 2 3 66 . 7 . 2 D r i n k i n g W a t e r S y s t e m s U s i n g S u r f a c e W a t e r.... 2 3 6xvi Contents 6.7.3 Wetland Management in a Watershed ........ 2 3 7 6.8 Addressing the Climate Change in Watershed Management . . 238 6.8.1 Groundwater Focus .................. 2 3 8 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 2 3 8Relevant FAO Papers/Reports ...................... 2 3 8 Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 2 3 9References ................................ 2 3 9 7 Pollution of Water Resources from Agricultural Fields and Its Control ................................ 2 4 1 7.1 Pollution Sources . ....................... 2 4 2 7.1.1 Point Sources . . . .................. 2 4 2 7.1.2 Nonpoint Sources . .................. 2 4 2 7.2 Types of Pollutants/Solutes . .................. 2 4 3 7.2.1 Reactive Solute . . .................. 2 4 3 7.2.2 Nonreactive Solute .................. 2 4 3 7 . 3 E x t e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l l u t i o n ................. 2 4 3 7 . 3 . 1 M a j o r P o l l u t a n t I o n s ................. 2 4 37 . 3 . 2 S o m e R e l e v a n t T e r m i n o l o g i e s ............ 2 4 47 . 3 . 3 F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g S o l u t e C o n t a m i n a t i o n....... 2 4 47 . 3 . 4 M o d e o f P o l l u t i o n b y N i t r a t e a n d P e s t i c i d e s..... 2 4 77.3.5 Hazard of Nitrate (NO 3– N ) P o l l u t i o n ........ 2 4 8 7.3.6 Impact of Agricultural Pollutants on Surface W a t e r B o d y a n d E c o s y s t e m ............. 2 4 8 7 . 4 S o l u t e T r a n s p o r t P r o c e s s e s i n S o i l ............... 2 5 0 7.4.1 Transport of Solute Through Soil . . ........ 2 5 0 7 . 4 . 2 B a s i c S o l u t e T r a n s p o r t P r o c e s s e s .......... 2 5 17 . 4 . 3 C o n v e c t i o n - D i s p e r s i o n E q u a t i o n........... 2 5 47.4.4 Governing Equation for Solute Transport Through Homogeneous Media ............ 2 5 4 7.4.5 One-Dimensional Solute Transport with N i t r i fi c a t i o n C h a i n .................. 2 5 6 7.4.6 Water Flow and Solute Transport in Heterogeneous Media . . . ............. 2 5 7 7 . 5 M e a s u r e m e n t o f S o l u t e T r a n s p o r t P a r a m e t e r s ......... 2 5 8 7 . 5 . 1 D i f f e r e n t P a r a m e t e r s ................. 2 5 87.5.2 Breakthrough Curve and Breakthrough Experiment . 259 7.6 Estimation of Solute Load (Pollution) from A g r i c u l t u r a l F i e l d........................ 2 6 17 . 6 . 1 S a m p l i n g f r o m C o n t r o l l e d L y s i m e t e r B o x...... 2 6 17 . 6 . 2 S a m p l i n g f r o m C r o p F i e l d .............. 2 6 17.6.3 Determination of Solute Concentration . . . .... 2 6 2 7.7 Control of Solute Leaching from Agricultural and Other Sources . ....................... 2 6 5 7.7.1 Irrigation Management . . . ............. 2 6 5Contents xvii 7.7.2 Nitrogen Management . . . ............. 2 6 5 7.7.3 Cultural Management/Other Forms of Management . . .................. 2 6 6 7.8 Models in Estimating Solute Transport from Agricultural and Other Sources ................. 2 6 6 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 2 6 7Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 2 6 7References ................................ 2 6 9 8 Management of Salt-Affected Soils .................. 2 7 1 8.1 Extent of Salinity and Sodicity Problem ............ 2 7 2 8.2 Development of Soil Salinity and Sodicity . . . ........ 2 7 3 8 . 2 . 1 C a u s e s o f S a l i n i t y D e v e l o p m e n t ........... 2 7 38 . 2 . 2 F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g S a l i n i t y .............. 2 7 78.2.3 Mechanism of Salinity Hazard ............ 2 7 8 8.2.4 Salt Balance at Farm Level . ............. 2 7 8 8.3 Diagnosis and Characteristics of Saline and Sodic Soils .... 2 7 9 8.3.1 Classification and Characteristics of S a l t - A f f e c t e d S o i l s .................. 2 7 9 8.3.2 Some Relevant Terminologies and C o n v e r s i o n F a c t o r s.................. 2 8 2 8.3.3 Diagnosis of Salinity and Sodicity . . ........ 2 8 5 8.3.4 Salinity Mapping and Classification . ........ 2 9 0 8.4 Impact of Salinity and Sodicity ................. 2 9 3 8.4.1 Impact of Salinity on Soil and Crop Production . . . 2938.4.2 Impact of Sodicity on Soil and Plant Growth .... 2 9 4 8.5 Crop Tolerance to Soil Salinity and Effect of Salinity o n Y i e l d............................. 2 9 58.5.1 Factors Influencing Tolerance to Crop ........ 2 9 5 8.5.2 Relative Salt Tolerance of Crops . . . ........ 2 9 7 8.5.3 Use of Saline Water for Crop Production . . .... 2 9 8 8.5.4 Yield Reduction Due to Salinity . . . ........ 2 9 9 8 . 5 . 5 S a m p l e E x a m p l e s ................... 3 0 0 8.6 Management/Amelioration of Saline Soil . . . ........ 3 0 1 8.6.1 Principles and Approaches of Salinity Management . . . .................. 3 0 1 8.6.2 Description of Salinity Management Options .... 3 0 2 8.7 Management of Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils . ........ 3 1 7 8.7.1 Management of Sodic Soil . ............. 3 1 7 8.7.2 Management of Saline-Sodic Soil . . ........ 3 1 9 8.8 Models/Tools in Salinity Management ............. 3 2 0 8.9 Challenges and Needs ...................... 3 2 3 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 3 2 3Relevant FAO Papers/Reports ...................... 3 2 3 F A O S o i l s B u l l e t i n s ........................... 3 2 4xviii Contents Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 3 2 4References ................................ 3 2 5 9 Drainage of Agricultural Lands .................... 3 2 7 9.1 Concepts and Benefits of Drainage . . ............. 3 2 9 9.1.1 Concepts ....................... 3 2 9 9.1.2 Goal and Purpose of Drainage ............ 3 2 9 9.1.3 Effects of Poor Drainage on Soils and Plants .... 3 2 9 9.1.4 Benefits from Drainage . . . ............. 3 3 0 9.1.5 Types of Drainage .................. 3 3 0 9.1.6 Merits and Demerits of Deep Open and B u r i e d P i p e D r a i n s.................. 3 3 2 9.1.7 Difference Between Irrigation Channel and Drainage Channel . . . ............. 3 3 4 9.2 Physics of Land Drainage . . .................. 3 3 4 9.2.1 Soil Pore Space and Soil-Water Retention Behavior . 3349 . 2 . 2 S o m e R e l e v a n t T e r m i n o l o g i e s ............ 3 3 59.2.3 Water Balance in a Drained Soil . . . ........ 3 3 8 9 . 2 . 4 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m .............. 3 4 0 9.3 Theory of Water Movement Through Soil and Toward Drain . 341 9 . 3 . 1 V e l o c i t y o f F l o w i n P o r o u s M e d i a .......... 3 4 19 . 3 . 2 S o m e R e l a t e d T e r m i n o l o g i e s............. 3 4 19.3.3 Resultant or Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity of Layered Soil ............. 3 4 2 9.3.4 Laplace’s Equation for Groundwater Flow . . .... 3 4 5 9.3.5 Functional Form of Water-Table Position D u r i n g F l o w i n t o D r a i n ................ 3 4 6 9.3.6 Theory of Groundwater Flow Toward Drain . .... 3 4 6 9 . 3 . 7 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m s.............. 3 4 7 9.4 Design of Surface Drainage System . ............. 3 4 9 9.4.1 Estimation of Design Surface Runoff ........ 3 4 9 9.4.2 Design Considerations and Layout of Surface Drainage System . . ............. 3 4 9 9 . 4 . 3 H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n o f S u r f a c e D r a i n .......... 3 4 99 . 4 . 4 S a m p l e W o r k O u t P r o b l e m.............. 3 5 0 9.5 Equations/Models for Subsurface Drainage Design . . .... 3 5 1 9.5.1 Steady-State Formula for Parallel Drain Spacing . . 3519 . 5 . 2 F o r m u l a f o r I r r e g u l a r D r a i n S y s t e m ......... 3 5 59 . 5 . 3 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f D r a i n P i p e S i z e .......... 3 5 6 9.6 Design of Subsurface Drainage System ............. 3 5 6 9.6.1 Factors Affecting Spacing and Depth of Subsurface Drain . .................. 3 5 6 9.6.2 Data Requirement for Subsurface Drainage Design . 3579.6.3 Layout of Subsurface Drainage . . . ........ 3 5 7Contents xix 9.6.4 Principles, Steps, and Considerations in Subsurface Drainage Design ............. 3 5 8 9.6.5 Controlled Drainage System and Interceptor Drain . 3619 . 6 . 6 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m s.............. 3 6 2 9 . 7 E n v e l o p e M a t e r i a l s ....................... 3 6 5 9.7.1 Need of Using Envelop Material Around Subsurface Drain . .................. 3 6 5 9.7.2 Need of Proper Designing of Envelop Material . . . 3659 . 7 . 3 M a t e r i a l s f o r E n v e l o p e................ 3 6 59 . 7 . 4 D e s i g n o f D r a i n E n v e l o p e .............. 3 6 69.7.5 Use of Particle Size Distribution Curve in D e s i g n i n g E n v e l o p M a t e r i a l ............. 3 6 7 9.7.6 Drain Excavation and Envelope Placement . .... 3 6 8 9.8 Models in Drainage Design and Management . ........ 3 6 8 9 . 8 . 1 D R A I N M O D..................... 3 6 89.8.2 CSUID Model . . .................. 3 6 9 9 . 8 . 3 E n D r a i n ........................ 3 6 9 9.9 Drainage Discharge Management: Disposal and Treatment . . 369 9 . 9 . 1 D i s p o s a l O p t i o n s................... 3 6 99.9.2 Treatment of Drainage Water ............. 3 7 0 9.10 Economic Considerations in Drainage Selection a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n ......................... 3 7 1 9.11 Performance Evaluation of Subsurface Drainage ........ 3 7 1 9.11.1 Importance of Evaluation . . ............. 3 7 1 9 . 1 1 . 2 E v a l u a t i o n S y s t e m .................. 3 7 2 9.12 Challenges and Needs in Drainage Design and Management . ....................... 3 7 3 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 3 7 3FAO/World Bank Papers . . ....................... 3 7 4 Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 3 7 4References ................................ 3 7 6 10 Models in Irrigation and Water Management ............ 3 7 9 10.1 Background/Need of a Model .................. 3 8 0 10.2 Basics of Model: General Concepts, Types, F o r m u l a t i o n a n d E v a l u a t i o n S y s t e m .............. 3 8 010.2.1 General Concepts . .................. 3 8 0 10.2.2 Different Types of Model . . ............. 3 8 1 1 0 . 2 . 3 S o m e r e l a t e d t e r m i n o l o g i e s .............. 3 8 610.2.4 Basic Considerations in Model Development and Formulation of Model Structure . ........ 3 8 9 10.2.5 Model Calibration, V alidation and Evaluation .... 3 9 0 10.2.6 Statistical Indicators for Model Performance E v a l u a t i o n ...................... 3 9 1 10.3 Overview of Some of the Commonly Used Models . . .... 3 9 3xx Contents 10.3.1 Model for Reference Evapotranspiration (ET 0Models) . . . .................. 3 9 3 10.3.2 Model for Upward Flux Estimation . ........ 3 9 7 10.3.3 Model for Flow Estimation in Cracking Clay Soil . . 39710.3.4 Model for Irrigation Planning and Decision Support System . . .................. 4 0 2 10.3.5 Decision Support Model . . ............. 4 0 5 10.4 Crop Production Function/Yield Model ............ 4 0 6 10.4.1 Definition of Production Function . . ........ 4 0 6 10.4.2 Importance of Production Function . ........ 4 0 6 10.4.3 Basic Considerations in Crop Production Function . 40710.4.4 Pattern of Crop Production Function . ........ 4 0 7 10.4.5 Development of Crop Production Function . .... 4 0 8 10.4.6 Some Existing Yield Functions/Models . . . .... 4 0 8 10.4.7 Limitations/Drawbacks of Crop Production Function 411 10.5 Regression-Based Empirical Models for Predicting C r o p Y i e l d f r o m W e a t h e r V a r i a b l e s ............... 4 1 110.5.1 Need of Weather-Based Prediction Model . . .... 4 1 1 10.5.2 Existing Models/Past Efforts ............. 4 1 2 10.5.3 Methods of Formulation of Weather-Based Prediction Model . .................. 4 1 3 1 0 . 5 . 4 D i s c u s s i o n ...................... 4 1 510.5.5 Sample Example of Formulating Weather-Based Yield-Prediction Model . . . .... 4 1 5 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 4 1 9Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 4 1 9References ................................ 4 2 0 11 GIS in Irrigation and Water Management .............. 4 2 3 11.1 Introduction ........................... 4 2 4 11.2 Definition of GIS . ....................... 4 2 4 11.3 Benefits of GIS Over Other Information Systems . . . .... 4 2 4 1 1 . 4 M a j o r T a s k s i n G I S ....................... 4 2 51 1 . 5 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f G I S....................... 4 2 511.6 Techniques Used in GIS . . . .................. 4 2 7 1 1 . 7 I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f G I S ..................... 4 2 711.8 Data and Databases for GIS . .................. 4 2 8 11.9 Sources of Spatial Data . . . .................. 4 2 8 11.10 Data Input ............................ 4 2 9 1 1 . 1 1 G I S - B a s e d M o d e l i n g o r S p a t i a l M o d e l i n g ........... 4 2 911.12 Remote Sensing Techniques .................. 4 3 0 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 4 3 1Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 4 3 1References ................................ 4 3 1Contents xxi 12 Water-Lifting Devices – Pumps .................... 4 3 3 1 2 . 1 C l a s s i fi c a t i o n o f W a t e r - L i f t i n g D e v i c e s ............. 4 3 5 1 2 . 1 . 1 H u m a n - P o w e r e d D e v i c e s ............... 4 3 51 2 . 1 . 2 A n i m a l - P o w e r e d D e v i c e s .............. 4 3 61 2 . 1 . 3 K i n e t i c E n e r g y P o w e r e d D e v i c e ........... 4 3 612.1.4 Mechanically Powered Water-Lifting Devices .... 4 3 7 1 2 . 2 D e fi n i t i o n , P u r p o s e , a n d C l a s s i fi c a t i o n o f P u m p s ........ 4 3 7 12.2.1 Definition of Pump .................. 4 3 7 1 2 . 2 . 2 P u m p i n g P u r p o s e................... 4 3 71 2 . 2 . 3 P r i n c i p l e s i n W a t e r P u m p i n g............. 4 3 81 2 . 2 . 4 C l a s s i fi c a t i o n o f P u m p s ............... 4 3 8 12.3 Factors Affecting the Practical Suction Lift o f S u c t i o n - M o d e P u m p ..................... 4 4 2 1 2 . 4 C e n t r i f u g a l P u m p s ....................... 4 4 2 12.4.1 Features and Principles of Centrifugal Pumps .... 4 4 2 12.4.2 Some Relevant Terminologies to Centrifugal Pump . 4431 2 . 4 . 3 P u m p E f fi c i e n c y ................... 4 4 512.4.4 Specific Speed . . .................. 4 4 6 1 2 . 4 . 5 A f fi n i t y L a w s..................... 4 4 61 2 . 4 . 6 P r i m i n g o f C e n t r i f u g a l P u m p s ............ 4 4 81 2 . 4 . 7 C a v i t a t i o n ....................... 4 4 9 12.5 Description of Different Types of Centrifugal Pumps . .... 4 4 9 1 2 . 5 . 1 T u r b i n e P u m p ..................... 4 4 912.5.2 Submersible Pump .................. 4 5 1 12.5.3 Mono-Block Pump .................. 4 5 4 1 2 . 5 . 4 R a d i a l - F l o w P u m p .................. 4 5 51 2 . 5 . 5 V o l u t e P u m p ..................... 4 5 61 2 . 5 . 6 A x i a l - F l o w P u m p ................... 4 5 61 2 . 5 . 7 M i x e d - F l o w P u m p .................. 4 5 612.5.8 Advantage and Disadvantage of Different C e n t r i f u g a l P u m p s .................. 4 5 7 12.5.9 Some Common Problems of Centrifugal Pumps, Their Probable Causes, and RemedialM e a s u r e s ....................... 4 5 7 12.6 Other Types of Pumps ...................... 4 5 8 1 2 . 6 . 1 A i r - L i f t P u m p ..................... 4 5 81 2 . 6 . 2 J e t P u m p ....................... 4 5 91 2 . 6 . 3 R e c i p r o c a t i n g P u m p / B u c k e t P u m p .......... 4 6 112.6.4 Displacement Pump ................. 4 6 2 1 2 . 6 . 5 H y d r a u l i c R a m P u m p ................. 4 6 21 2 . 6 . 6 B o o s t e r P u m p ..................... 4 6 212.6.7 V ariable Speed Pump ................. 4 6 2 1 2 . 7 C a v i t a t i o n i n P u m p ....................... 4 6 3 12.7.1 Cavitation in Radial Flow and Mixed F l o w P u m p s ..................... 4 6 3xxii Contents 1 2 . 7 . 2 C a v i t a t i o n i n A x i a l - F l o w P u m p s........... 4 6 3 12.8 Power Requirement in Pumping . . . ............. 4 6 4 1 2 . 9 P u m p I n s t a l l a t i o n , O p e r a t i o n , a n d C o n t r o l ........... 4 6 5 1 2 . 9 . 1 P u m p I n s t a l l a t i o n................... 4 6 51 2 . 9 . 2 P u m p O p e r a t i o n ................... 4 6 61 2 . 9 . 3 P u m p C o n t r o l ..................... 4 6 7 1 2 . 1 0 H y d r a u l i c s i n P u m p i n g S y s t e m................. 4 6 8 1 2 . 1 0 . 1 P r e s s u r e V s F l o w R a t e ................ 4 6 81 2 . 1 0 . 2 P r e s s u r e a n d H e a d .................. 4 6 812.10.3 Elevation Difference ................. 4 6 9 12.11 Pumps Connected in Series and Parallel ............ 4 6 9 12.12 Pump Performance and Pump Selection ............ 4 6 9 12.12.1 Pump Performance .................. 4 6 9 12.12.2 Factors Affecting Pump Performance ........ 4 6 9 1 2 . 1 2 . 3 S e l e c t i n g a P u m p................... 4 7 012.12.4 Procedure for Selecting a Pump . . . ........ 4 7 0 1 2 . 1 3 S a m p l e W o r k o u t P r o b l e m s o n P u m p .............. 4 7 3Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 4 7 6 13 Renewable Energy Resources for Irrigation ............. 4 7 9 13.1 Concepts and Status of Renewable Energy Resources . .... 4 8 0 13.1.1 General Overview .................. 4 8 0 13.1.2 Concept and Definition of Renewable Energy .... 4 8 1 1 3 . 1 . 3 P r e s e n t S t a t u s o f U s e s o f R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y .... 4 8 2 1 3 . 2 N e e d o f R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y................... 4 8 21 3 . 3 M o d e o f U s e o f R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y............... 4 8 313.4 Application of Solar Energy for Pumping Irrigation Water . . . 483 13.4.1 General Overview .................. 4 8 3 13.4.2 Assessment of Potential Solar Energy Resource . . . 48413.4.3 Solar or Photovoltaic Cells – Theoretical Perspectives ...................... 4 8 5 13.4.4 Solar Photovoltaic Pump . . ............. 4 8 5 13.4.5 Uses of Solar System Other than Irrigation Pumping 48913.4.6 Solar Photovoltaic Systems to Generate Electricity Around the Globe ............. 4 9 0 1 3 . 5 W i n d E n e r g y .......................... 4 9 1 13.5.1 Wind as a Renewable and Environmentally Friendly Source of Energy . ............. 4 9 1 1 3 . 5 . 2 H i s t o r i c a l O v e r v i e w o f W i n d E n e r g y ......... 4 9 11 3 . 5 . 3 C a u s e s o f W i n d F l o w ................. 4 9 21 3 . 5 . 4 E n e r g y f r o m W i n d .................. 4 9 313.5.5 Advantages of Wind Energy ............. 4 9 3 1 3 . 5 . 6 A s s e s s i n g W i n d E n e r g y P o t e n t i a l .......... 4 9 413.5.7 Types of Wind Machines . . ............. 4 9 5 1 3 . 5 . 8 S u i t a b l e S i t e f o r W i n d m i l l .............. 4 9 5Contents xxiii 1 3 . 5 . 9 A p p l i c a t i o n o f W i n d E n e r g y ............. 4 9 6 13.5.10 Working Principle of Wind Machines ........ 4 9 7 1 3 . 5 . 1 1 W i n d P o w e r P l a n t s o r W i n d F a r m s .......... 4 9 8 1 3 . 5 . 1 2 C a l c u l a t i o n o f W i n d P o w e r .............. 4 9 8 1 3 . 5 . 1 3 I n t e r m i t t e n c y P r o b l e m w i t h W i n d E n e r g y ...... 5 0 0 1 3 . 5 . 1 4 W i n d a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t.............. 5 0 1 1 3 . 5 . 1 5 S a m p l e W o r k O u t P r o b l e m s ............. 5 0 1 1 3 . 6 W a t e r E n e r g y .......................... 5 0 2 1 3 . 6 . 1 F o r m s o f W a t e r E n e r g y................ 5 0 3 1 3 . 6 . 2 W a v e E n e r g y ..................... 5 0 3 1 3 . 6 . 3 W a t e r m i l l....................... 5 0 4 1 3 . 6 . 4 T i d e M i l l ....................... 5 0 5 1 3 . 6 . 5 E x p l o r i n g t h e P o t e n t i a l s o f W a t e r P o w e r ....... 5 0 5 13.7 Bio-energy ............................ 5 0 6 1 3 . 7 . 1 L i q u i d B i o f u e l .................... 5 0 7 1 3 . 7 . 2 B i o g a s ........................ 5 0 8 1 3 . 8 G e o t h e r m a l E n e r g y ....................... 5 0 8 13.9 Modeling the Energy Requirement . . ............. 5 0 9 13.10 Factors Affecting Potential Use of Renewable Energy in Irrigation ........................... 5 0 9 13.10.1 Groundwater Requirement and Its Availability . . . 510 13.10.2 Affordability of the User . . ............. 5 1 0 13.10.3 Willingness of the User to Invest in a R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y B a s e d P u m p ........... 5 1 0 13.10.4 Availability of Alternate Energy for Irrigation and Its Cost . . . ............. 5 1 1 1 3 . 1 0 . 5 A l t e r n a t e U s e o f R e n e w a b l e E n e r g y ......... 5 1 1 13.11 Renewable Energy Commercialization: Problems and Prospects 511 1 3 . 1 1 . 1 P r o b l e m s ....................... 5 1 2 13.11.2 Prospects/Future Potentials . ............. 5 1 4 13.11.3 Challenges and Needs . . . ............. 5 1 6 R e l e v a n t J o u r n a l s ............................ 5 1 6 Q u e s t i o n s ................................. 5 1 7 References ................................ 5 1 8 ................................519 Subject Index .