(Solution Manual) Water Resources and Development

Angew,Woodhouse, 1

Engineering

Solution Manual

1st Edition

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Solution Manual for Water Resources and Development, The downloadable file consists of 366 pages, and the total size of the file is 8.53 MB. Purchase now only for highly discounted price.

Author(s): Angew, Woodhouse

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Water Resources and Development ‘The book provides a critical and thoroughly referenced introduction to water resource availability and management. The authors highlight the importance of the stewardship of the water environment and give a balanced treatment of the role of social and political priorities in the allocation of water. This is an ideal text for fi rst and second degree courses.’ J A [Tony] Allan Professor at King’s College London and the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. ‘The authors provide valuable perspectives on the increasingly complex business of managing water. This book will serve both as a valuable reference to practitioners and students in water- related disciplines as well as a guide to those from other fi elds who need to understand how water and its management impact on their worlds.’ Mike Muller Visiting Professor at the Wits University Graduate School of Public and Development Management, Johannesburg. Since the start of the twenty-fi rst century there has been an unprecedented focus upon water as a key factor in the future of both society and environment. Water management lies at the heart of strategies of development to which has been added the hazard of climate change. Water Resources and Development , provides a stimulating interdisciplinary introduction to the role of water resources in shaping opportunities and constraints for development. The book begins by charting the evolution of approaches to water management. It identifi es an emerging polarisation in the late twentieth century between ‘technical’ and ‘social’ strategies. In the past decade these two axes of policy debate have been further intersected by discussion of the scale at which management decisions should be made: the relative effectiveness of ‘global’ and ‘local’ gover-nance of water. A variety of case studies elaborate this analytical framework, exemplifying four key development challenges: economic growth, poverty reduction, competition and confl ict over water, and adaptation to climate change. Current ‘best practice’ for water management is exam-ined, addressing strategies of water-supply augmentation, the ecological implications of intensifi ed use and strategies of demand management guided by economic or political principles. It is argued that defi ning ‘successful’ water management and best practice requires fi rst the establishment of development goals and the implicit trade-offs between water consumption and conservation. This engaging and insightful text offers a unique interdisciplinary analysis by integrating scientifi c, engineering, social and political perspectives. This is an essential text for courses on development studies, geography, earth sciences and the environment. Clive Agnew is a Professor of Physical Geography at the School of Environment and Development, , UK.Philip Woodhouse is Senior Lecturer in Environment and Rural Development, Institute for Development Policy and Management, , UK. Routledge Perspectives on Development Series Editor: Professor Tony Binns, University of Otago The Perspectives on Development series will provide an invaluable, up to date and refreshing approach to key development issues for academics and students working in the fi eld of development, in disciplines such as anthropology, economics, geography, international relations, politics and sociology. The series will also be of particular interest to those working in interdisciplinary fi elds, such as area studies (African, Asian and Latin American Studies), development studies, rural and urban studies, travel and tourism. If you would like to submit a book proposal for the series, please contact Tony Binns on j.a.binns@geography.otago.ac.nz Published: Third World Cities, 2nd edition David W. Drakakis-Smith Rural–Urban Interactions in the Developing WorldKenneth Lynch Children, Youth and Development Nicola Ansell Theories and Practices of Development Katie Willis An Introduction to Sustainable Development, 3rd editionJennifer A. Elliott Environmental Management and Development Chris Barrow Gender and Development Janet Henshall Momsen Tourism and Development Richard Sharpley and David J. Telfer Southeast Asian Development Andrew McGregorPopulation and Development W.T.S. Gould Postcolonialism and Development Cheryl McEwan Confl ict and Development Andrew Williams and Roger MacGinty Disaster and Development Andrew Collins Non-Governmental Organisations and DevelopmentDavid Lewis and Nazneen Kanji Cities and Development Jo Beall Gender and Development Second Edition Janet Henshall Momsen Economics and Development Studies Michael Tribe, Frederick Nixson and Andrew Sumner Water Resources and Development Clive Agnew and Philip Woodhouse Forthcoming: Global Finance and Development David Hudson Africa: Diversity and Development Tony Binns and Alan Dixon Politics and Development Heather Marquette Local Knowledge, Environment and Development Tony Binns, Christo Fabricius and Etienne Nel Participation and Development Andrea CornwallFood and DevelopmentE.M. Young Natural Resource Extraction Roy Maconachie and Gavin M. Hilson Health and Development Hazel Barrett Theories and Practices of Development, 2nd editionKatie Willis Water Resources and Development Clive Agnew and Philip Woodhouse First published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2011 Clive Agnew and Philip Woodhouse The right of Clive Agnew and Philip Woodhouse to be identifi ed as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Agnew, Clive, 1955- Water resources and development / Clive Agnew and Philip Woodhouse. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Water resources development. 2. Water-supply. 3. Water resources development–Environmental aspects. I. Woodhouse, Philip. II. Title. HD1691.A365 2010 333.91–dc22 2010017017 ISBN: 978–0–415–45137–6 (hbk) ISBN: 978–0–415–45139–0 (pbk) ISBN: 978–0–203–84065–8 (ebk)This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to w ww.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. ISBN 0-203-84065-8 Master e-book ISBN Contents List of plates vii List of fi gures ix List of tables xiii List of boxes xv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xxi 1 Water-management best practice in the twenty-fi rst century 1 2 Economic growth, environmental limits and increasing water demand 44 3 Climate change and fresh water resources 84 4 Water resources in colonial and post-independence agricultural development 127 5 Water supply 1626 Water demand 2087 Catchments and confl icts 246 8 Water resources and development conclusions 282 Notes 295 References 296 Index 335 Plates 5.1 Abandoned rainwater harvesting system for an old school house in the Mpigi district, Uganda 192 5.2 Water treatment facilities were constructed in Kanyike (Uganda), reportedly in the 1950s, but, as this picture illustrates, by the 1990s they had been abandoned and allowed to decay 195 Figures 1.1 Percentage of water withdrawal compared to renewable supply using income groups 2 1.2 Countries that are facing high water stress as indicated by the ratio of withdrawal to renewable resources (m3c-1y-1) where water stress is taken to be a withdrawal of more than 25% of resources 4 1.3 Sectoral water consumption in the Middle East 8 1.4 Renewable water resources relative to population 9 1.5 Annual freshwater withdrawal relative to population and as percentage of renewable water resources 9 1.6 Water-scarce countries, i.e. actual renewable water resources are less than 1000 m3c-1y-1 11 1.7 Water-stressed countries, i.e. actual renewable water resources are greater than 1000 m3c-1y-1 but less than 1700 m3c-1y-1 12 1.8 Urban water consumption across Europe 13 1.9 Netherlands household water consumption 14 1.10 Rural water provision (sanitation and potable supply) 15 1.11 Access to improved water source 16 1.12 Access to improved sanitation 16 1.13 Trends in water use and extraction where shaded area indicates difference between extraction and consumption (*predicted for 2025) 17 1.14 USA water withdrawals 18 1.15 Variation in water-resource management strategies 40 1.16 Various dimensions in water-resource management strategies 41 1.17 Book structure, chapters and water management 42 2.1 Water withdrawal by global region for year 2000 45 2.2 Global average biochemical oxygen (BOD) demand due to industrial effl uents in water courses 47 x • Figures 2.3 California’s major water projects 61 2.4 Yangtze River valley 63 2.5 Rhine River basin 66 2.6 Alterations to Rhine channels from nineteenth to twentieth century 67 2.7 Urbanisation in the Rhine valley: comparison of Arnhem in nineteenth and twentieth century 69 2.8 Decline of salmon population in the Rhine 72 2.9 Long-term increase in depth of groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley, California 81 3.1 Links between climate change and water-resource management 89 3.2 Global average temperatures based on HadCruT3 globally gridded data, shaded area indicates sampling uncertainty 91 3.3 Climate-change impacts chain of uncertainty 102 3.4 World map of predicted climate change impacts 110 3.5 Drought planning and drought response 122 3.6 Illustrating the range of different options for tackling hydrological disasters over different time scales 124 4.1 Growth in irrigated areas for selected countries and regions including total for developing countries 129 4.2 Countries with more than 40% of their cropland under irrigation 130 4.3 River basins of India 133 4.4 Inner Delta of the Niger River, Mali, and the Offi ce du Niger irrigation area (shaded) 143 4.5 The Senegal River valley 144 4.6 The São Francisco River basin, Brazil 156 5.1 Freshwater withdrawals (2001) for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes 163 5.2 Water management strategies grouped by temporal scale and degree of technology 164 5.3 Ten countries with highest annual groundwater withdrawal rates, which are compared as percentage of total of renewable freshwater resources 167 5.4 Ten countries with highest annual per capita groundwater withdrawal rates, which are compared as percentage of renewable freshwater supplies per capita 167 5.5 The various purposes for dam construction as a percentage of total number 169 5.6 Large dam characteristics by region 170 Figures • xi 5.7 Numbers of dams commissioned each decade during twentieth century 171 5.8 Locations of large dams by country 172 5.9 World desalination capacity based on Table 5.1 178 5.10 Maps of Mahafi rs in Jordan 190 6.1 The ten countries with the poorest availability of safe water supply as a percentage of population served 209 6.2 The ten countries with the poorest sanitation availability expressed as a percentage of population with access to adequate sanitation 209 6.3 Observed and predicted world urban population growth 210 6.4 World megacity populations (millions) 210 6.5 Urban households with safe water and sanitation (sewer) connections 211 6.6 Relationship between pricing structure and management objectives 221 6.7 Predicted water supply and sanitation privatisation trend from 1997 to 2010 225 7.1 The Nile River catchment 258 7.2 Time series data of annual rainfall anomalies and hydrology in the Nile basin 259 7.3 Map of Jordan River basin 270 8.1 Dimensions of water governance 287 8.2 Paradigms for water-resource management 288 Tables 1.1 Water availability and use 2 2.1 Water withdrawal per person (m3c-1y-1) in 2003 45 2.2 Water-related infectious diseases 48 2.3 Water and sanitation supply terminology used in reports 50 2.4 Proportion (%) of world population with basic access to water and sanitation 51 2.5 Changes in average water use (litres per capita per day – lcd) over 30 years in East Africa 52 2.6 Hydroelectricity-generating capacity of large dams compared 62 2.7 Floods on the Yangtze River 62 3.1 Adaptive measures to combat fl ood risk 123 4.1 Comparison of ranges of values for indicators of irrigation productivity in different countries in Asia 137 4.2 Net irrigable area (ha) for different types of irrigation in the Senegal River valley 149 4.3 Evolution of irrigation on the Offi ce du Niger 153 5.1 The development of world desalination capacity (capacities in Mm3d-1) 178 5.2 Israel water supply, consumption and desalination (Mm3y-1) 179 5.3 Water resources for selected ME nations 181 7.1 Schematic summary of annual water fl ow in the Nile River basin 256 7.2 Water resources and usage in the Jordan River basin 269 7.3 Annual recharge and water use (Mm3y-1) from West Bank aquifers 276 Boxes 1.1 Defi nitions of different categories of water 3 1.2 Water units and magnitudes 6 1.3 The water balance 20 1.4 Drought 21 1.5 Declaration 1977 UN Water Conference at Mar del Plata, Argentina 30 1.6 ICWE ‘Dublin’ Principles 32 2.1 Basic water-treatment methods 49 2.2 The increasing reach of water demand in southern California (after Reisner, 1993) 55 2.3 The Tennessee Valley Authority 59 2.4 The Three Gorges Construction Project 64 2.5 The Rhine: a ‘developed’ river 68 2.6 Rehabilitating Rhine River water quality 73 2.7 Defi ning and measuring water quality 77 3.1 Climate, weather and meteorology 85 3.2 Penman–Monteith approach to evaporation 97 3.3 Predicting crop yield under changing water supply 115 3.4 Agroclimatological processes and plant growth 116 4.1 Water-use effi ciency in irrigation 131 4.2 ‘Protective irrigation’ in colonial and post-independence India 134 4.3 Irrigating India’s Green Revolution 135 4.4 Equitable design, inequitable outcome; the Tungabhadra system 139 4.5 The Dina code in the inner delta of the Niger, Mali 145 4.6 Historic patterns of fl ood management: Senegal River Valley 146 4.7 Making irrigation work? The Offi ce du Niger 150 4.8 Destabilisation and stagnation of production in the Senegal River valley 151 xvi • Boxes 5.1 The environmental costs of dam construction 174 5.2 The social costs of large dams 175 5.3 Desalination processes 179 5.4 Cloud-seeding practices 184 5.5 Development of cloud seeding 188 5.6 Kanyike case study of rural water supply 195 6.1 Economic principles of water-demand management (WDM) 217 6.2 Water-pricing mechanisms 219 7.1 Water management in England and Wales 249 7.2 Determinants of fl ow in the Nile 256 7.3 The 1959 Nile Waters Agreement 263 7.4 The Jonglei Canal 265 7.5 Early confl ict (1890–1948) 271 7.6 1967–1994 water allocations across ‘internal’ boundaries: the West Bank 273 7.7 Water negotiations in the Oslo Accords 275 7.8 International agreements and resolutions relating to water management 279 Preface Efforts to understand and manage water resources have generated a vast literature of books and journals devoted to the topic’s many facets, from the underlying science of hydrology and engineering options available, to the geopolitical problems generated by water scarcity and the adaptive strategies needed to tackle fl oods and pollution. The literature has demonstrated many different ways of organising our thinking on water. While some take a global perspective, others focus on key regional problem areas, while yet others emphasise distinct water use sectors. To this burgeoning print literature may be added a rapidly growing number of web pages through which national and international agencies and advocacy organisations present current, or at least recent, information on water-resource issues and priorities. It is perhaps a wonder, then, that we ever considered starting this book, and we could be excused for being intimidated by both the volume of existing work and by the challenge of addressing ‘water resources’ coherently, never mind adding the compli- cation of using a development perspective to organise our analysis. We were encouraged by four factors. First, and undeniably, water is an important topic, not just because it is vital for life, but because it is important in the development of society. This can be demonstrated historically, from the early water-based cultures along the Tigris, Euphrates and the Nile, to the construction of the Dutch polders or the Hoover Dam in the USA. Second, there is a widely held perception of ‘water in crisis’, an impend- ing Armageddon that threatens an outbreak of water wars as scarcity becomes more acute. While acknowledging the many parts of the world where lack of access to water is a key constraint on human activity or wellbeing, we need to recognise the many examples where this is not the case or where people have successfully adapted and innovated. We wanted to understand better the reasons for this variability, and the xviii • Preface nature of spatial and temporal uncertainties surrounding the impact of water constraints. A third motivation for this book was to assess critically the extent to which paths followed in the past to tackle water-resource problems in today’s ‘developed’ economies may not be suitable for developing countries today. There are important contrasts between the ‘underdevelop- ment’ contexts of the past and those of today. Population pressure, poverty and inequality are all higher, demand for irrigation water is greater and water increasingly crosses international frontiers, both as virtual water and through exogenous fl ows. Yet it is also the case that strategies of the past have been heavily modifi ed, with greater emphasis now being placed on stakeholder engagement and economic tools rather than relying heavily or solely upon technology. Ideas of what constitutes good practice in water management have evolved, just as the contexts and challenges of development cannot be simply mapped to a simple linear path from ‘underdevelopment’ to ‘development’. We felt it important, therefore, to examine how approaches to water resources have evolved to embrace the ‘ecological’, ‘instrument’ and ‘institutional’ principles widely advocated in contemporary water policy, and to consider: what is next? Finally, we chose not to write about water-resource management, but, rather, to write a book on water-resource development. Here we see water as both a facilitator and a constraint on development, but also development as an important force shaping the nature of water resources. Harnessing and using water resources has been one of the most effective means by which societies have inhabited the planet. In doing so, devel-opment has created new meanings for water: irrigation has been fundamental to the increase in food supply during the twentieth century, the provision of hydroelectric power continues to be a major motivation for the construction of mega dams, chlorination to create safe drinking water is believed to have substantially increased life expectancy. In the future, increasing urbanisation will mean greater emphasis on the re-use of wastewater, and changing desalination technology may mean water supplied as an industrial product, rather than natural resource. Presenting all four elements in a coherent fashion has proved a challenge and we are indebted to the advice from colleagues and reviewers of an earlier version of the book, which we substantially changed. It became clear that we should not try to write an encyclopaedia of water problems and solutions, nor could we hope to capture in a relatively short book all facets of water and development. This has meant that our treatment is unavoidably uneven. We have noted the particular importance, Preface • xix for example, attached to gender roles, and have given special consideration to urban and rural water-supply problems. However, we have not delved deeply into water infrastructure, nor waste-water treatment techniques. This selectivity will be apparent in the chapter structure and is explained in Chapter 1. It is important to stress here that our main goal has been to identify and explain the different ways in which water has combined with human development over the last hundred years. In doing so, we make clear that today the engagement of local populations of ‘water users’ is being addressed in ways that would have been inconceivable in the early parts of the twentieth century. Following an introduction to the nature of the global water crisis in Chapter 1 and an examination of water within economic development in Chapter 2, the book is structured around two key dimensions. Technological approaches to tackle water scarcity, and socio-economic approaches that address water governance. Because environmental conditions are fundamental but are beset with uncertainties over a variety of scales (temporal and spatial) we commence with the highly contemporary topic of climate change and water resources in Chapter 3, before addressing agricultural exploitation of water in Chapter 4 and then technologies for water-supply enhancement in Chapter 5. Many of the topics covered are technical or require detailed explanation. We have separated out some of the technical and detailed information to aid the fl ow of the discussion, and presented these as ‘boxes’ which the reader can skip and still cover the key arguments. The governance of water needs to be considered across various scales, so in Chapter 6 we focus upon the individual and the community in an examination of demand management, then, at a coarser scale, we give consideration to catchment-scale governance and geopolitical confl icts in Chapter 7. Finally, Chapter 8 refl ects upon the lessons learned for management and development of water, concluding that technological solutions, whether guided by engineering or ecological principles, are not enough. This is because, while they may determine the overall quantity of water avail-able, distribution of benefi ts from water development is a function of the political dynamics of society. This raises questions about the role of the state in water development and the goals and priorities that determine outcomes. Thus we have also sought to look at the changes in attitudes towards water-resources development through the twentieth century. We have examined the neo-liberal arguments emphasising water pricing and private property rights, together with the more recent promotion of xx • Preface engagement of stakeholders as a means of ensuring more democratic and accountable water management. However, the evidence is that neither approach is unproblematic. In the absence, then, of a universal strategy or solution, we argue that the key is to understand the tensions and interactions between these principles in specifi c development contexts. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Tony Binns for his encouragement to write this book in the fi rst place, and for the invaluable advice received from the reviewers of the fi rst draft. The diagrams have all been produced by the drawing offi ce in the School of Environment and Development at the , and we thank Graham and Nick for their patience and skill. The book draws upon our experiences of working on water resources in many parts of the world over several decades and would not have been possible without collaboration from colleagues across Africa, Middle East, USA and Europe, and we would like to make special mention of the advice and motivation provided by Professor Ewan Anderson (Emeritus, Durham University), Mike Muller (former Director General of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria) and Professor Tony Allan (Kings College, University of London). Finally, our thanks to our families for helping us keep a sense of perspective. 1 Water-management best practice in the twenty-fi rst century Introduction There is perhaps no more graphic illustration of the centrality of water to human existence than the emphasis placed on the search for water on Mars. The confi rmation by NASA in July 2008 that its Phoenix lander on Mars had identifi ed ice in a soil sample analysed in its onboard laboratory prompted a newspaper opinion poll in which 92 per cent of respondents said they believed there was life elsewhere in the universe (Guardian , 2008). Beyond this fundamental association of water with ‘life’, however, water plays a major role in humanity’s social and economic existence. Not only is the management of water needed to enable almost all productive activity, but the need to manage water has historically imposed organisational requirements on human society. Viewed from a perspective of aggregate water use, however, this imperative to manage water resources seems unwarranted, since human activity withdraws less than 10 per cent per cent of the available water resources on the planet (Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1). ‘Available water’ means here the water in streams, lakes and groundwater – sometimes referred to as ‘blue’ water – after discounting the 99 per cent of the world’s water as ‘unavailable’ because it is contained in the oceans or polar ice, or falls as rain but is absorbed by vegetation and returned to the atmosphere (transpiration – ‘green’ water) before it can drain into aquifers or streams (see Box 1.1 for a fuller account of such water classifi cations). 2 • Water-management best practice in the twenty-fi rst century Even within the less than 1 per cent of water that is ‘available’, it appears that water is so abundant relative to human needs that little effort should be needed to manage it. Across Europe total rainfall (precipitation) is ten times the amount withdrawn for human activities (EEA 2005, cited by Carter 2007). However, as Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1 suggest, the availability of water is not uniform across all parts of the globe. Moreover, the intensity of human activity and settlement is not governed Table 1.1 Water availability and use Region Renewable (internal) freshwater resources(km 3y -1)Total freshwater withdrawal (km 3y -1)Freshwater withdrawals (km3y -1) Withdrawal as % of renewable freshwateragriculture industry municipalities amount % amount % amount % Africa 3,936 217 186 86 9 4 22 10 5.5 Asia 11,594 2,378 1,936 81 270 11 172 7 20.5Latin America 13,477 252 178 71 26 10 47 19 1.9 Caribbean 93 13 9 68 1 9 3 23 14.4North America 6,253 525 203 39 252 48 70 13 8.4 Oceania 1,703 26 19 72 3 10 5 18 1.5Europe 6,603 418 132 32 223 53 63 15 6.3World 43,659 3,830 2,664 70 785 20 381 10 8.8 Sources: based on FAO-AQUASTAT database, 2009; Molden, 2007: 70 Figure 1.1 Percentage of water withdrawal compared to renewable supply using income groups Source: after WRI, 2009, withdrawal data 2000, supply data 2007